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Jasmine is an aromatic, euphoric and restorative herb

Jasmine

Jasminum grandiflorum

Oleaceae

A floral, aromatic herb with an affinity for the nervous and reproductive systems, jasmine was first used medicinally in ancient Persia.

Last reviewed 11/09/2025

Sustainability status

Not currently on risk lists but complete data may be missing on the status of the species. Read more in our sustainability guide.

Sustainability Status
Key benefits
  • Calming
  • Relaxing
  • Reproductive tonic

  • How does it feel?

    Infusions of both the fresh and dried flowers are aromatic and slightly bitter, with the dried flower having a more honeyed, hay-like flavour carrying through (1–5).

    Energetically, jasmine is considered a cooling herb, and this is reflected in how it feels to drink an infusion of the flowers — the feeling is subtly heavy, calming and cooling (1–5). The dried flowers smell more heavily honeyed than the fresh, and have an almost hay-like undertone, making for a headier, heavier and slightly more bitter brew.

    Fresh jasmine flowers have an intoxicating thickness to their aroma, with some sweet, lighter floral notes like honey, and even something of a smoky undertone at times (6). Their aroma is reminiscent of summer evenings, as the night air cools and the breeze carries their soothing scent. When inhaled, the essential oil of jasmine is creamy, powdery and floral, with some almost animal-like undertones and fresher green top notes, too (7). This is due to a unique combination of chemical constituents —primarily ketones, lactones and esters — each of which have their own aromatic character (7). The overall effect of inhaling jasmine essential oil is uplifting with a feeling of euphoria coupled with a paradoxical soft, heavy, relaxing quality (8).

    Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)
    Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)
    Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)

  • What can I use it for?

    Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)
    Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)

    Jasmine is used externally as an absolute — a solvent or CO2 extraction, not an essential oil, since jasmine is not distilled as the volatile compounds are degraded by heat (9,10). It is also available as an aromatic water and sometimes used as a room mist or anti-inflammatory skin toner, although this is not produced like a true hydrosol, since jasmine is not distilled (11,12).

    Jasmine absolute can be used topically, diluted in massage oil, balms and creams or via inhalation for emotional and neurological conditions, especially in acute shock, trauma, depression or emotional burnout (8,13).

    It is considered hormonally and physically regulating for the uterus and as such, is used to treat both spasmodic and/or hormonal conditions affecting the female reproductive system, including regulating lactation (5,8,14). Abdominal massage (transdermal absorption, in a suitable base oil or lotion) or inhalation are considered good methods of administration for these kinds of conditions (9,13).

    It is antimicrobial, astringent and decongestant, and its affinity for the reproductive system lends jasmine’s use as a herb for physiological conditions like leucorrhoea (9,15).Acting as a psychological and emotional decongestant, jasmine liberates creativity and releases inhibitions; jasmine may, therefore, prove helpful in treating impotence or a lack of sexual desire (9,15). Inhalation (of the diluted absolute) is the most effective and efficient method of administration for psychotherapeutic effect (9, 13).

    It is gently supportive in gastrointestinal conditions such as leaky gut syndrome and gastritis, or where there is laxity and/or inflammation in the digestive tissues (5).  Again, abdominal massage may be helpful here (9,13).

  • Into the heart of jasmine

    Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)
    Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)

    A herb with an affinity for psycho-spiritual conditions, jasmine is especially helpful for psychological dysregulation and emotional insecurity (8). Promoting disinhibition and emotional security, this herb is understood to be helpful for treating unresolved emotional challenges, fear, disassociation and depression that comes from repressed emotional states (8,15).

    It has an affinity for the female reproductive system, both emotionally and physically, lifting sexual inhibitions, acting as an aphrodisiac and alleviating amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, premenstrual syndrome (PMS), labour pains and clotting (4,5,16). Research shows it is a lactation suppressant, but some sources also cite this herb as a galactagogue — this has since been disproven by further research (8,13,17).

    Ayurveda considers this herb to be cooling, light and drying, both opening the heart chakra and generating feelings of love in those who drink an infusion of the flowers (18). The infusion is recommended to help enhance spiritual practice (18). 

    Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) differs in its energetic consideration of jasmine, attributing warming, moistening, restorative and stimulant qualities to it (4). As such, it is considered useful for uterus qi deficiency, characterised by scanty or absent menstruation or cramping, as well as addressing congestive conditions of the digestive and respiratory systems where there is mucus build-up (4).

    The discrepancy between the energetics of jasmine in these two traditional medicine systems may be because Ayurveda emphasises jasmine’s soothing, pitta-regulating actions (cooling), whereas TCM emphasises its qi-moving, yang-supporting properties (warming) (4,18).

  • Traditional uses

    The medicinal use of jasmine is documented as far back as Persian physician Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine where it was used as both an analgesic and anti-inflammatory treatment for a range of painful skin conditions, as well as earache, ophthalmitis, uterine pain and sexual headaches — nodding to its modern-day use for reproductive-neurological conditions (19,20) . 

    It wasn’t until the 18th century when jasmine became more widely available in Europe due to the dawn of the perfume industry, which was enabled by the development of spice and trade routes — and the exploitation of communities and countries that produced many aromatic plants (21,22). In the 1800s, in Europe, it was traditionally used as a syrup to treat coughs and hoarseness (3).

  • Traditional actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • Traditional energetic actions

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What practitioners say

    Nervous systemNervous system

    Jasmine is used in clinical aromatherapy and herbal medicine settings to treat severe emotional and neurological conditions like panic attacks, severe anxiety, acute shock, trauma, depression or burnout (8,13,23).

    Reproductive system

    It has a strong affinity with the female reproductive system and is considered both an aphrodisiac and fertility tonic (5,9,18). It regulates reproductive hormones, reduces uterine spasms, prevents blood stagnation (and therefore cramping and clots), suppresses lactation and eases labour pains (5,8,14). It also helps alleviate both menstrual and sexual headaches and can ease heavy menstrual bleeding (5,19).

    Its antimicrobial, astringent and decongestant properties make it indicated for leucorrhoea, Herpes and Candida albicans (5,9,15). It also acts as a psychological and emotional decongestant, helping to release inhibitions, and is therefore helpful for treating psychosexual impotence or a lack of desire (9,15).

    Digestive system

    Its bitter, astringent and antimicrobial properties mean it is gently supportive for the liver, and used as a hepatotrophorestorative in cases of cirrhosis or hepatitis (5). It is also helpful for treating leaky gut syndrome, gastritis, and other gastrointestinal conditions where laxity, infection or inflammation are concerned (5). It can be used as a mouthwash or gargle to relieve mouth ulcers, too (5).

    Integumentary system

    As an antimicrobial, vulnerary and astringent herb, jasmine is often included in skincare products and can be applied as an emollient, antipruritic liniment or lotion to dry, inflamed skin (8). It is considered cooling for high pitta-kapha states and, as such, it can help reduce both skin and mucous membrane inflammation (18). Conditions such as dermatitis, ulcers and acne can all benefit from topical application of jasmine-containing products (8).

  • Research

    Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)
    Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)

    A comparison of the effect of aromatherapy with jasmine and clary sage on sexual dysfunction in women of reproductive age: A randomised controlled clinical trial

    A triple-blind randomised clinical trial was conducted on 168 women between the ages of 15 and 45, with the aim of identifying whether jasmine and/or sage could improve sexual dysfunction. The study concluded that both herbs were effective in increasing mental arousal and lubrication, and reducing sexual pain. However, the authors do not state which species were used in the trial and how the aromatherapeutic interventions were administered. Therefore, higher quality research is needed to confirm these findings (24).

    Jasminum grandiflorum oral gel as an add-on to standard of care in radiation induced grade 2 oral mucositis — an open label pilot clinical trial

    A non-randomised pilot trial was conducted with 20 patients who had experienced radiation-induced oral mucositis. The control group received a sodium bicarbonate mouthwash, while the intervention group also received a Jasminum grandiflorum infused oral gel. The trial results demonstrated a significant reduction in pain scores and spread of mucositis in the intervention group compared to the control; however larger, randomised controlled trials are needed to confirm these initial findings (25).

    Effectiveness of jasmine oil (Jasminum officinale) massage on reduction of labour pain among primigravida mothers

    A non-randomised, experimental trial with 20 primigravida mothers (first-time mothers in the active phase of labour) was conducted with the objective of understanding whether massage with Jasminum officinale oil would reduce labour pain. The study concluded that there was a statistically significant reduction in the mean labour pain scores overall. However, higher quality randomised, controlled trials would be needed to confirm these initial promising results (26).

    A systematic review on the anxiolytic effect of aromatherapy during the first stage of labour

    Whilst not a specific study on Jasminum officinale, this systematic review explored aromatherapy as an anxiolytic treatment during labour and concluded that aromatherapy interventions (which included Jasminum spp.) were effective in reducing women’s anxiety during the first stages of labour. More specific research on exact applications and herbs would be required to evidence support for the use of Jasminum officinale as an anxiolytic aromatherapy intervention in labour (27).

  • Did you know?

    Jasmine’s aroma was traditionally extracted by a process developed in Ancient Egypt known as enfleurage, where flowers were layered with animal tallow to extract their aroma (5,27,26).

Additional information

  • Botanical description

    Jasmine is an evergreen climber, jasmine grows to approximately 2.5 m by 0.5 m. It has white, fragrant flowers and opposite, pinnate leaves with 5–11 leaflets (32,30). 

  • Common names

    • Jasmine
    • Jessamine
    • White-flowered jasmine

  • Safety

    Jasmine essential oil is non-toxic, and largely non-irritant, although it can have moderate skin sensitising effects in some people (29). It should be applied at a maximum dermal dilution of 0.7% of the total blend (29).

    It’s important to note that jasmine is frequently adulterated and sold as pure extract when in fact many products claiming this are combined with synthetic and/or artificial additives, and occasional adverse skin reactions are likely due to low-quality products (8,28,27). As such, ingestion of the absolute is not advised (8).

  • Interactions

    None known (18,29,30,29)

  • Contraindications

    It is recommended to avoid this herb during lactation due to its anti-galactagogue effects, since both topical application and inhalation can suppress prolactin, the hormone that stimulates milk production (13). It is also recommended to avoid this herb during pregnancy (14).

  • Preparations

    Topically

    • Absolute (blended into creams and oils and massaged into the skin): Massage oil (8,13) or Liniment (8,13)
    • Fresh or dried flowers: Poultice (4)

    Internally

    • Fresh or dried flowers: Herbal infusion (4,18) 
    • Tincture (4,18)
    • Absolute: Inhalation, via diffusion or directly (8,18)

  • Dosage

    Infusion

    5–30 g of dried flowers in 300 ml pre-boiled water (covered and brewed for 10 minutes). Keep the infusion covered, so the volatile compounds do not escape (4,18). 

    Tincture

    • 1–3 ml per day, 1:3 strength, 35% ABV  (4) 
    • 5–10 ml per day, 1:2 strength, 90% ABV (18)

    Other preparations

    • Diffuser blend: 1–5 drops in 50 ml of water (8,18)
    • Massage oil: Diluted to 3% in a base oil for full body massage (8,13)
    • Liniment: Diluted up to 4% and applied 2–3 times per day (8,13)

  • Plant parts used

    Flowers (18)

  • Constituents

    • Alkaloids: Jasminine
    • Volatile oils: Benzyl acetate (<24.5%), benzyl benzoate (<20%), phytol (<12.5%), linalool (<6.5%), squalene (<6%), indole (<3.5%), z-jasmone (<3.3%), jasmolactone (<1.2%)
    • Flavonoids: Quercetin, kaempferol, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, rutin, nicotiflorin
    • Phenolic glycosides
    • Tannins
    • Resin (18,27,28)
Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)

  • Habitat

    Native to parts of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, jasmine grows well in warm temperate to tropical areas in sandy, loamy and heavy clay soil and prefers well-drained soil (32,30). It will grow in slightly acidic, neutral and slightly alkaline soils, and will tolerate partial shade or full sun (32). It prefers moist soil but can tolerate drought (32). It is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant (33).

  • Sustainability

    Jasmine is not currently rated by IUCN, NatureServe or the American Botanical Council (34–36). However, it is primarily cultivated for (and highly prized by) the perfume industry, and climate change is impacting crops and communities in Egypt where much of the jasmine is cultivated, so measures should be implemented to ensure crop health and sustainable growing and harvesting.

    These can include: 

    • Crop rotation to maintain soil health and prevent degradation.
    • Using natural pest control and using organic or biodynamic farming methods
    • Careful harvesting of flowers for healthy future plant populations.
    • Macerating small quantities of the flower in base oil to extract its properties, instead of producing large quantities of solvent extracts.
    • Making use of new advancements in green technology to enhance efficiency of extraction of medicinal compounds (37).

    Ethical issues with jasmine cultivation should also be taken into account when sourcing jasmine products since its cultivation has been linked to child exploitation in the perfume and cosmetics industry (38).

  • Quality control

    Jasmine is frequently adulterated and sold as pure extract when many products claiming this are combined with synthetic and/or artificial additives (8,28,27). As such, it is advisable to source it from small suppliers that work directly with small, organic farms where possible to ensure high quality (29).

    Herbal medicines are often very safe to take; however, their safety and efficacy can be jeopardised by quality issues. So, it is important to buy herbal medicines from a reputable supplier, from sources known to test their herbs to ensure there is no contamination, adulteration or substitution with incorrect plant matter, as well as ensuring that recognised marker compounds are at appropriate levels in the herbs.

    Some important quality assurances to look for are certified organic labelling, the correct scientific/botanical name, and the availability of information from the supplier about ingredient origins. A supplier should be able to tell you where the herbs have come from, what contaminants are not in the herb, and what the primary compounds are.

  • How to grow

    Jasmine can be grown from seed but production is low and seed viability is rarely higher than 50% (32). For a higher success rate, use 12–20 cm long cuttings taken from terminal shoots and treated with rooting powder, or cuttings from shoot tips (32).

  • Recipe

    Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)
    Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)

    Emotional release jasmine bath salts

    Use these bath salts to relieve tension or release repressed, stuck emotions.

    Ingredients

    • 15 ml base oil such as sweet almond (Prunus dulcis) or cold-pressed sunflower (Helianthus annuus)
    • 45 g Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate)
    • 36 gtt (drops) of jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum) essential oil
    • Small handful of dried or fresh jasmine flowers (optional)

    Equipment

    • Small, clean 60 ml jar
    • Teaspoon
    • Glass measuring cup up to 100 ml
    • Small bowl

    How to make relaxing jasmine bath salt

    • Measure out 20 ml of base oil into your beaker.
    • Add the essential oil and mix well with your teaspoon until the oils are fully combined.
    • Pour the oil mixture into your bowl and add the Epsom salts.
    • Mix well
    • Spoon your mixture into the jar and add the flowers if you are using them.
    • Use a few spoonfuls in a bath to support emotional release and support nervous system regulation.

    If using fresh or dried jasmine flowers, store in the fridge and use within one month. If not, store in a cool, dry place with the lid tightly on for up to six months.

  • References

    1. Chevallier A. Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine. 3rd ed. Dorling Kindersley; 2016. 
    2. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (RBGK). Jasminum grandiflorum L. Plants of the World Online. Plants of the World Online (POWO). Accessed August 28, 2025. http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:328130-2
    3. Grieve M. A Modern Herbal Jasmines. Accessed August 28, 2025. https://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/j/jasmin06.html 
    4. Holmes P. The Energetics of Western Herbs: Treatment Strategies Integrating Western & Oriental Herbal Medicine. 4th ed. Aeon; 2007. 
    5. McIntyre A. Healing With Flowers: The Power of Floral Medicine. Aeon; 2022. 
    6. Holmes P. Aromatica. Vol 1. Singing Dragon; 2016. 
    7. McGee H. Nose Dive: A Field Guide to the World’s Smells. John Murray; 2020. 
    8. Holmes P. Aromatica. Vol 2. Singing Dragon; 2019. 
    9. Mojay G. Aromatherapy for Healing the Spirit: A Guide to Restoring Emotional and Mental Balance through Essential Oils. Gaia Books Limited; 1999. 
    10. Aftel M. Fragrant: The secret life of scent. Riverhead Books; 2014. 
    11. Catty S. Hydrosols: The Next Aromatherapy. Healing Arts Press; 2001. 
    12. Jasmine Hydrosol | AromaWeb. Accessed August 28, 2025. https://www.aromaweb.com/hydrosols/jasmine-hydrosol-hydrolat.php
    13. Martin I. Aromatherapy for Massage Practitioners. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007. 
    14. Caddy R. Essential Oils in Colour. 7th ed. Amberwood Publishing Ltd; 1997. 
    15. Battaglia S. The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy, Vol. III, Scent and Psyche. Vol 3. 3rd ed. Black Pepper Creative Pty. Ltd.; 2021. 
    16. El-Shiekh RA, Hussein D, Atta AH, Mounier SM, Mousa MR, Abdel-Sattar E. Anti-inflammatory activity of Jasminum grandiflorum L. subsp. floribundum (Oleaceae) in inflammatory bowel disease and arthritis models. Biomed Pharmacother. 2021;140:111770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2021.111770
    17. Price S, Price L. Aromatherapy for Health Professionals. 4th ed. Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2011. 
    18. Pole S. Ayurvedic Medicine. 2nd ed. Singing Dragon; 2013. 
    19. Mosavat SH, Marzban M, Bahrami M, Parvizi MM, Hajimonfarednejad M. Sexual headache from view point of Avicenna and traditional Persian medicine. Neurol Sci. 2017;38(1):193-196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-016-2741-4
    20. Mahdizadeh S, Khaleghi Ghadiri M, Gorji A. Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine: a review of analgesics and anti-inflammatory substances. Avicenna J Phytomedicine. 2015;5(3):182-202. 
    21. Musée International de la Parfumerie. Classifications of natural raw materials of plant origin. https://www.museesdegrasse.com/sites/default/files/fs_mip_english.pdf
    22. Mignot J. Scent, money, and ethics – Nez the olfactory cultural movement. Nez. June 21, 2024. Accessed August 28, 2025. https://mag.bynez.com/en/news/scent-money-and-ethics/
    23. Somner L. Herbal Medicine for Mental Health: Natural Treatments for Anxiety, Depression, ADHD, and More. Citadel Press; 2022. 
    24. Hajabdollahi Z, Loripoor M, Mohseni M, Khalili P. A comparison of the effect of aromatherapy with Jasmine (Jasminum) and clary sage (Salvia officinalis) on sexual dysfunction in women of reproductive age: A randomized controlled clinical trial. J Educ Health Promot. 2025;14:50. https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_1175_23
    25. Anuja AR, Anoop R, Mohanan A, Ramesh NV. Jasminum grandiflorum oral gel as an add-on to standard of care in radiation induced grade 2 oral mucositis – an open label pilot clinical trial. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2024;15(4):100925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaim.2024.100925
    26. Mukhlis H, Nurhayati N, Wandini R. EFFECTIVENESS OF JASMINE OIL (JASMINUM OFFICINALE) MASSAGE ON REDUCTION OF LABOR PAIN AMONG PRIMIGRAVIDA MOTHERS. Malahayati Int J Nurs Health Sci. 2018;1(2):47-52. https://doi.org/10.33024/minh.v1i2.1590
    27. A systematic review on the anxiolytic effect of aromatherapy during the first stage of labor. Accessed August 28, 2025. https://jcs.tbzmed.ac.ir/Article/JCS_19796_20171004203315
    28. Pearlstine EV. Scent: A Natural History of Fragrance. Yale University Press; 2022. 
    29. Tisserand R, Young R. Essential Oil Safety. 2nd ed. Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2014. 
    30. NatMed Pro – Interactions Checker Tool. Accessed July 18, 2025. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/Tools/InteractionChecker
    31. Integrative Medicine: Search About Herbs | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. Accessed August 28, 2025. https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/diagnosis-treatment/symptom-management/integrative-medicine/herbs/search
    32. Jasminum grandiflorum Jasmin PFAF Plant Database. Accessed August 28, 2025. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Jasminum+grandiflorum
    33. Jasminum grandiflorum L. | Catalonian jasmine Climber Wall Shrub/RHS. Accessed August 28, 2025. http://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/118949/jasminum-grandiflorum-l/details
    34. IUCN. IUCN Redlist of threatened species. IUCN Redlist of threatened species. https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?query=Calendula%20suffruticosa%20subsp.%20foliosa
    35. Other Monographs and Articles. In: Other Monographs and Articles – American Botanical Council. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/other-monographs-and-articles/
    36. NatureServe Explorer. Accessed August 28, 2025. https://explorer.natureserve.org/
    37. IFF, Grasse, France. Jasmine Absolute With Antioxidant Compounds—Thanks To Renewable Solvent Extraction Process. Perfumer & Flavorist. April 1, 2025. Accessed August 28, 2025. https://www.perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/ingredients/article/22933193/iff-jasmine-absolute-with-antioxidant-compoundsthanks-to-renewable-solvent-extraction-process
    38. Luxury perfumes linked to child labour, BBC finds. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-68172560 May 28, 2024. Accessed August 28, 2025.

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (eg from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot
Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradich or wasabi, generate warmth when taken. In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage. Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold. .
Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol. .
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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