A voice for
herbal medicine

We share traditional, scientific and practical insights written by experienced herbalists and health experts from the world of herbal medicine and natural health

  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Not safe for pregnancy and lactation.

    Not to be used in conjunction with other sedative medication.

    Sustainability

    Status: Low risk

    Key constituents

    Alkaloids
    Flavonoids

    Quality

    Native to North America and Western Europe
    Wild harvested and cultivated

    Key actions

    Sedative
    Anxiolytic
    Nervine
    Relaxant

    Key indications

    Insomnia
    Anxiety
    Stress
    ADHD

    Key energetics

    Cool
    Relaxing
    Sweet

    Preperation and dosage

    Aerial parts
    Dried herb: <8 g per day
    Fluid extract: <8 ml per day

  • How does it feel?

    Passionflower has a delicate herby taste, with mildly sour and sweet tones. The sourness can be primarily perceived by the receptors on the sides of the tongue. The infusion of the dried herb is refreshingly pleasant, smooth and easy to drink.

    The physical sensation after ingesting a passionflower infusion is one of deep calm. The tea has a smooth, rich texture which adds to its nurturing and nourishing quality. The calming nervine effects of this herb are often felt soon after taking. The aromatic compounds directly influence GABAergic neurotransmission, reducing nervous activity to soothe and settle the mind and body.

    Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata)
    Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata)
    Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata)

  • Into the heart of passionflower

    Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata)
    Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata)

    Passionflower is deemed to be mildly cooling in the understanding of Western herbal energetics. This cooling action reduces heat, excitation and overstimulation in the cells (3). Whilst passionflower is less obviously sour than other medicinal herbs , it does have a notable sour taste. This cooling action is often seen in plants that have a sour taste profile. Herbs like sorrel (Rumex acetosa) and lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) also fit in this category of non-fruiting sour relaxants whose actions may be well applied for this type of nervous excitability.

    In Ayurveda, passionflower is thought to decrease pitta and kapha. It also moves obstructed vata. It is said that when used in excess, it may increase vata, so it is likely best to use with caution for individuals with a high vata constitution (4).

    Similar to Ayurveda, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has its own unique system of understanding health balance and disease. TCM understands passionflower to be of a calming nature, relieving anxiety and soothing the spirit. It also tonifies Heart yin (put simply, yin translates as a restorative energy that allows the body and mind to slow down, rest and relax), whilst also clearing internal wind. Internal wind may be indicated by the presence of spasms, pain and seizures arising from hyperactive Liver yang (yang refers to active energy, heat, movement and power) (5).

    In the energetics of the eclectics, passionflower is understood to be best adapted to debility and nervous irritability. It is specifically indicated for irritation of the brain and nervous system with atony. This herb is appropriate for those whose sleep is affected by overwork, worry and exhaustion. In addition, convulsions, hysteria and oppressed breathing may be present (6).

  • What practitioners say

    Nervous systemNervous system

    Passionflower has a marked sedative effect on the central nervous system. It is often used by herbalists to treat anxiety, restlessness and other mental health conditions. It has been shown to improve symptoms in people with attention deficit disorder (ADD) as well as in alleviating withdrawal symptoms in people recovering from conventional and recreational drug addictions (12,13,14).

    Passionflower is an excellent remedy for insomnia. It works most effectively when taken in the evening to support the transition into sleep. It is well known to induce a restful sleep without a feeling of grogginess the next day that can often accompany sedatives (15,16).

    Furthermore, passionflower can be applied to spasmodic conditions, such as the spasmodic muscular convulsions seen in epilepsy (1,15). It is also referenced for use in Parkinson’s disease (16). The antispasmodic actions also indicate its use in the treatment of neuralgia and pain from shingles (16).

    As a sedative, passionflower can be used in the acute treatment of mania and also for panic attacks, but it is also safe to use for chronic anxiety. Passionflower is a more gentle sedative than other herbs like valerian and hops (2).

    Digestive system

    Passionflower may be applied in spasmodic conditions of the digestive system, particularly where these are linked to stress and tension such as with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). This herb is antispasmodic, meaning that it can easily relax tension held in the digestive tract such as in flatulence and intestinal spasm. This spasmodic state can also be seen in conditions such as reflux, colic and dysentery (1,16).

    Cardiovascular system 

    Passionflower additionally acts as an antihypertensive to reduce high blood pressure and prevent tachycardia, particularly where the cause is stress. Traditionally, it has been applied to reduce palpitations. This mechanism is likely due to its effect on the nervous system in reducing the stress response, as opposed to a specific cardiac mechanism (1,3).

    Respiratory system

    Passionflower can be useful in the treatment of spasmodic asthma and whooping cough (2,16). As a herb with powerful antispasmodic actions, passionflower can be applied where these conditions leave a patient with persistent tension in the lungs and diaphragm that leads to spasmodic coughing (2,16).

  • Passionflower research

    Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata)
    Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata)

    Passionflower in the treatment of generalized anxiety: A pilot double-blind randomised controlled trial with oxazepam

    A double-blind randomised control trial was carried out to compare the efficacy of Passiflora incarnata extract with oxazepam (an anti-anxiety and insomnia pharmaceutical medication) in the treatment of generalised anxiety disorder.

    The study was carried out on outpatients with a generalised anxiety diagnosis. Patients were randomly allocated — with 18 participants receiving the passionflower extract at 45 drops per day, 18 in the placebo tablet group, and 18 to receive oxazepam at 30 mg per day plus placebo drops over a four week trial period.

    The results show that passionflower  extract and oxazepam are equally as effective in the treatment of generalised anxiety disorder. However, subjects taking oxazepam displayed significantly more problems relating to impairment of job performance. The study concludes that Passionflower is effective for the management of generalized anxiety disorder. Passionflower holds the advantage over oxazepam with its low incidence of impairment of job performance and side effects (16).

    Passiflora incarnata in neuropsychiatric disorders—A systematic review

    A systematic review was carried out on nine different clinical trials where passionflower is used in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. The review includes a number of studies where passionflower was used in clinical trials to assess its efficacy for anxiety. Some of these studies focused on preoperative and pre-spinal anaesthesia anxiety and also for anxiety related to dental procedures.

    The results across each study showed that passionflower was safe and effective for reducing anxiety. This includes the case of conscious sedation in adult patients. Passionflower was found to significantly contribute to reducing pre-procedural anxiety. A very low incidence of side effects was reported, however, a study where passionflower was used in preoperative anxiety found that psychomotor functions were impaired 30 minutes after extubation (17).

    The same review discusses the results of a study where the effects of passionflower were compared to midazolam for bilateral extraction of the mandibular third molars. The anxiolytic action of both substances used in the study was similar. Among the subjects in the midazolam group, 20% reported significant memory loss, while none of the patients receiving passionflower reported such an experience. The midaxolam group reported a higher incidence of drowsiness (17).

    The review concludes with a theme of strong evidence to support that passionflower is able to alleviate some symptoms of neuropsychiatric origin. The anxiolytic effect of passionflower is comparable to the drugs oxazepam or midazolam. However, passionflower holds the advantage of having little to no adverse reactions, such as including memory loss or collapse of psychometric functions as often seen with its pharmaceutical equivalents. Consequently, passionflower offers a safe and effective medicine to reduce stress reactivity, insomnia, anxiety, and depression-like behaviours (17).

    Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical study of Passiflora incarnata in participants with stress and sleep problems

    This randomised, double blind, placebo controlled clinical study was carried out to evaluate the effect of a passionflower extract on participants with stress and sleep issues. Participants were randomly divided into two groups, one (32 people) to receive 600 mg of passionflower at bedtime and the other (33 people) placebo group to receive placebo capsules. The study was carried out over a 30 day time period, with assessments carried out on day 1, 15 and 30.

    Results showed a significant reduction on the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) in the passionflower group vs placebo, an increase in total sleep time in the passionflower group as well as a notable increase in overall psychological health in the passionflower group. There were no adverse effects reported, suggesting passionflower is an effective remedy in reducing stress levels and supporting sleep (18). 

    Passiflora incarnata in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents

    In an eight-week, double-blind, randomised clinical trial the effectiveness of passionflower in treatment of ADHD was carried out on a group of 34 children aged between the ages of 6 to13 years old. Subjects in the treatment group were given 0.04 mg passionflower tablets twice daily whilst the control received methylphenidate (an ADHD medication) at 1 mg twice daily. Both treatment groups demonstrated significant clinical benefits over the period of treatment as assessed by both parents and teachers. The study concludes that “passionflower may be a novel therapeutic agent for the treatment of ADHD” (12).

    Research into passionflower’s effects on psychiatric disorders is promising, however larger scale clinical trials and studies are required to add more weight to the evidence base.

  • Historical use of passionflower

    Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata)
    Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata)

    In Grieves’ A Modern Herbal written originally in 1931, the traditional uses of passionflower are understood to be due to a combined effect as a nervous system depressant. She described this mechanism to be specifically affecting descending motor pathways (7).

    Historical records show that the Aztecs used passionflower for its medicinal benefits, including for the treatment of urinary tract disorders, bone fractures, and skin contusions. 

    Traditionally, Native Americans used passionflower as a sedative (8).

    Nicolas Monardes, a Spanish doctor working in Peru, was the first European to bring passionflower to Europe after learningof  its medicinal uses from the Indigenous peoples of South America in 1569. Subsequently, passionflower became widely cultivated and used in European folk medicine (9).

    North American physicians prescribed passionflower for its effects on spasmodic conditions, such as seizures and epilepsy. In the early 20th century, European physicians were understood to have used passionflower to treat anxiety and mild sleep disorders (10).

  • Passionflower’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Chinese actions

  • Passionflower’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What can I use passionflower for?

    Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata)
    Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata)

    Passionflower is a key remedy for reducing anxiety. This herb can be used to support multiple symptoms of anxiety. A typical indication for passionflower is where anxiety is accompanied by racing and repetitive thoughts. Symptoms may also present with agitation, restlessness, spasms, neuralgic pain, headaches, palpitations and feelings of panic. Passionflower can be applied to help with any of these symptoms as it facilitates a feeling of calm and relaxation (1).

    Passionflower works directly on the central nervous system, alleviating overactivity. Passionflower brings peace to the nervous system and allows one to function from a place of calm, regaining a sense of confidence and control (2).

    The grounding effects of passionflower are especially helpful where these types of presentations are accompanied by sleep disturbances, such as insomnia. It is a gentle relaxant and a mild hypnotic (2).

    Passionflower is also sometimes used to alleviate nervous irritability that can accompany weaning off from pharmaceutical sedatives or anxiety medications. Recovery from alcohol and drug addictions may also be supported by passionflower via the same mechanism. For this application, it may be combined with other nervine sedative herbs, such as hops (Humulus lupulus) and valerian (Valeriana officinalis) (1). Furthermore, where digestive symptoms arise from stress and tension, passionflower may be used as a stomach relaxant and for symptoms of indigestion, particularly (2).

  • Did you know?

    The name passionflower refers to the ‘passion of christ’. It was thought to symbolise events in the last hours of the life of Jesus Christ. Symbolically the corona or flower was thought to represent the crown of thorns, the styles represent the nails used in the crucifixion, the stamens represent the five wounds, and the five sepals and five petals represent 10 of the Apostles — all but Judas and Peter (7).

  • Botanical description

    Passiflora incarnata is a sub species in the Passifloraceae genus which contains more than 550 different species. It is a perennial climbing vine, with extending tendrils.

    The leaves are alternate, serrate and three lobed reaching to between 10–15 cm long.

    The flowers contain five sepals and five petals and can be white, purple, pink or blue in colour. The corona contains pink or purple filaments. The edible yellow fruit grows up to 5 cm long.

    The plant flowers in summer and autumn in the northern hemisphere (19).

  • Common names

    • Maypop
    • Passion vine
    • Granadilla
    • Water lemon
    • Maracuya 
    • Flor de la pasion 
    • Fleur de la passion

  • Habitat

    Passionflower is native to the southeastern United States, Central and South America. It typically grows  in sandy soils, roadsides, prairies, plains, meadows, pastures, woodland edges, streams and riverbanks (20).

  • How to grow passionflower

    Passionflower is a hardy plant that is easy to grow. It blooms over a long period from early summer until autumn. It grows best in any fertile, well-drained soil in a sunny, sheltered position in the garden. The following advice is focused on how to grow in small potted plants.

    Plants for sale are usually of flowering size and available in 1 or 2 litre pots

    Plant passionflower in the spring after the cold weather has passed (typically late May/early June). Passionflower planted in the garden border will produce the best growth and flowers when in a sunny, sheltered position away from cold drying winds. A south- or west- facing fence or wall is ideal.

    Passionflower will climb by means of their tendrils and need to be planted and trained against a trellis or horizontally-wired fence or wall on which the tendrils can cling. The growing area needs to permit up to 10 m of growth.

    Water passionflower once a week during dry spells and container plants as soon as the surface of the soil looks dry. Flowering may reduce in particularly dry spells.

    The roots can be fertilised in the spring using a general fertiliser. During the winter, no feeding is required as the plant will be dormant (21).

  • Herbal preparation of passionflower

    • Tincture
    • Capsules
    • Infusion

  • Plant parts used

    Aerial parts

  • Dosage

    • Tincture (1:5 | 45%): Between 1–8 ml per day divided into two or three equal doses (16)
    • Fluid extract (1:1 | 25%): 1.5–8 ml per day (16)
    • Infusion/decoction: Add 1–2 tsp of dried herb to a mug of water, steeping for 15 minutes. After straining, drink passionflower tea up to three times a day (15,16).

  • Constituents

    • Indole alkaloids (up to 9%): Harmene is the primary alkaloid, along with, harman, halo, harmaline, harmalol, passiflorine
    • Flavonoids (0.8–2.5%): Flavone C-glycosides, apigenin (up to 2.5%) luteolin, rutin, homoorientin, orientinkaempferol, quercetin, saponarin and isovitexin
    • Phenolics: Caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid
    • Fatty acids
    • Sterols: Passicol is a polyacetylene and is antimicrobial
    • Volatile oils
    • Vitamins: K (15,16)

  • Passionflower recipe

    Peace tea

    This delicious passionflower peace tea is made with equal parts of passionflower, lavender, limeflower and chamomile.

    Ingredients

    Equal parts of:

    How to make passionflower tea

    1. Mix equal parts of the dried herbs to the approximate weight of 5–10 g (or 3–4 teaspoons. Steep in hot water in a teapot for up to 15 minutes. Then strain the infusion into your favourite mug. Drink throughout the day.
    2. This blend of gently relaxing and aromatic herbs will help bring a sense of calm and relaxation in mind, body and spirit.
Passionflower: Anxiety relief

Passionflower: Anxiety relief

  • Safety

    Passionflower is generally referenced as unsafe to take during pregnancy and lactation. If you are pregnant or breastfeeding it is best to consult with a clinical herbalist before taking this herb (15,16,22).

  • Interactions

    Passionflower may increase the effects of prescription sedatives, antispasmodics and anxiolytics; it is best to consult a herbal practitioner if you are taking any of these medications (15,16,22). This is, however, mostly theoretical and no interactions have been reported to date.

    Passionflower should not be taken alongside the older types of anti-depressants called monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) (15,16,22).

  • Contraindications

    None known (15,16,22).

  • Sustainability status of passionflower

    According to NatureServe, passionflower was last assessed for its endangered rating in 1994. It was then classified as stable in many areas of its native habitat across the United States of America.

    It also states the global reassessment is in need of review (23). It is not listed on the IUCN redlist of threatened species, and is not considered to be at risk as it an adaptable plant that grows prolifically in the right conditions (24). 

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Passionflower is both wild harvested and cultivated for medicinal uses. There are no known contamination or adulteration risks if sourced from a reputable supplier (16).

Related herbs

Limeflower (Tilia x europaea)

Limeflower

Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis)

Lemon balm

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Anxiety

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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