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  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Contraindicated with hyperthyroidism and Grave’s disease. May cause additive effects with sedative medication. Avoid with levothyroxine.

    Sustainability

    Caution: At risk

    Key constituents

    Triterpenoid saponins: Basosides
    Flavonoids
    Alkaloids

    Quality

    India and South Asia
    cultivated
    Adulteration with Centella asiatica common

    Key actions

    Adaptogen
    Nootropic
    Trophorestorative
    Neuroprotective

    Key indications

    Brain fog
    Cognitive impairment
    Stress
    Burnout

    Key energetics

    Cool
    Moist
    Tonifying
    Bitter

    Preperation and dosage

    Aerial parts
    1–3 g/per day
    Tincture 1:5 | 45%: 6–15 ml per day

  • How does it feel?

    Brahmi can be dissolved in water and shaken slightly to produce a foamy or soapy consistency. This is as a result of the high saponin content. These saponins can be experienced after tasting, as the initial flavour is soapy, followed by an acrid, slightly bitter, and sweet flavour with a salty undertone. Saponins often offer a sweeter flavour.  

    All around the world the actions of traditional medicines were understood by their immediate sensory impacts, and saponin-rich remedies, such as ginseng (Panax ginseng) and liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), were favourite tonics, used to support and balance various functions in the body. We would now point to the likely modulating effect on steroid hormones, such as produced by the adrenal cortex, ovaries and testes, as saponins have similar structures.

    Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri)
    Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri)
    Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri)

  • Into the heart of brahmi

    Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri)
    Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri)

    Brahmi is considered a cooling herb that calms excess pitta conditions and can be applied to calm mental agitation, inflammation or excess heat (1,2). The sweet and slightly bitter properties combine to produce clearing and nourishing actions for the nervous tissue. It can specifically be applied for excess vata presenting as scattered or anxious minds, or excess pitta presenting as intensity, irritability and heat (1,2).

    Considered a nervine trophorestorative in Western herbal medicine, helping to calm the mind and restore nervous function over time (4,5). It is closely associated with spirituality in India, as its name derives from brahman meaning universal consciousness and is translated as the energy of Brahman (2). Brahmi is considered a sattvic herb, helping to promote love, harmony and spiritual purpose whilst cleansing darkness from the mind (6). 

    Brahmi contains a variety of chemical constituents including saponins, alkaloids and flavonoids which contribute to its medicinal action. The primary constituents are the steroidal saponins — bacosides, which are predominantly responsible for its neuroprotective and cognitive enhancement effects (3). Bacosides have been shown to increase neurotransmitter and synapse function, as well as increase serotonin production (3). 

  • What practitioners say

    Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri)
    Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri)

    Nervous system

    Brahmi can be applied to improve all aspects of cognitive function including memory, learning and recall as well as concentration and mental clarity. In this sense, it can be applied for the treatment of dementia, Alzheimer’s, ADHD and Parkinson’s.

    Its neuroprotective qualities, as an anxiolytic, and calming nervine it can be used to support in cases of generalised anxiety, overthinking or nervous debility, especially if these arise from stress (1). This support for mental hyperactivity can also be helpful in cases of insomnia (2). Brahmi can be taken long term to aid with nervous depletion, exhaustion or burn out, as well as improve brain fog associated with recovery from chronic illness or infection (1,2). 

    Endocrine system

    Brahmi’s role as an adaptogen is specifically related to its effect on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by increasing the body’s resilience to acute and chronic stress (9). It has been shown to effectively lower cortisol levels, contributing to a reduction in overall stress levels (10). 

    Cardiovascular system

    In Ayurvedic medicine brahmi is considered a cardiotonic (hrdaya), meaning that it can strengthen the heart and improve its contractile efficiency (2,6). It is also seen as protective for the tissues of the heart and can prevent the development of diseases or heart attacks (1). It can also be considered in cases where excess pitta or heat affects heart rhythm and results in palpitations or arrhythmia (1).  

  • Brahmi research

    Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri)
    Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri)

    Use of Bacopa monnieri in the treatment of dementia due to alzheimer disease: Systematic review of randomised controlled trials

    This systematic review examined the efficacy and safety of Bacopa monnieri in adults with mild, moderate, or severe Alzheimer’s disease, or mild cognitive impairment as a result. Five eligible studies were identified, involving small sample sizes of adult participants diagnosed with these conditions. Interventions included Bacopa monnieri extracts either alone or in combination with other herbal extracts, with dosages ranging from 125 mg to 500 mg twice daily, compared against placebo or the cholinesterase inhibitor Donepezil over varying treatment durations.

    Primary outcome measures included the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) in three trials and the Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale–Cognitive Subscale (ADAS-Cog) in one trial, with secondary outcomes including additional cognitive and memory scales such as the Wechsler Memory Scale.  All studies reported statistically significant improvements in at least one cognitive outcome with Bacopa monnieri, the overall quality of evidence was not rated as high (11).

    Investigating the neuroprotective and cognitive-enhancing effects of Bacopa monnieri: A systematic review focused on inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis

    This systematic review investigated the neuroprotective and cognitive-enhancing effects of Bacopa monnieri, particularly in relation to inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis. The review included 22 clinical trials, involving both male and female participants, including children aged 6–14 years, and adults with conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, dementia, ADHD, hyperactivity, inattention, anhedonia and major depression.

    Studies used Bacopa monnieri either alone or in combination with other compounds, with doses ranging from 160–640 mg daily over four weeks to six months; 17 of which were compared to placebo. Primary outcomes varied across studies and included cognitive function, memory, attention, emotional function, perceived stress, depression, ADHD symptoms, inflammatory biomarkers and oxidative stress markers. Secondary outcomes included sleep, impulsivity, executive function and psychiatric symptoms.

    Overall, Bacopa monnieri was associated with improvements in cognitive function, memory retention, learning, attention, emotional function, depression, hyperactivity, sleep routine and perceived stress, alongside reductions in NF-κB phosphorylation, pro-inflammatory biomarkers and oxidative stress. The authors concluded that Bacopa monnieri shows promising neuroprotective potential but requires larger, well-designed randomised controlled trials to confirm efficacy, optimal dosing and long-term safety (12).

    Efficacy of Brahmi vati in generalised anxiety disorder – Randomised double blind comparative clinical trial

    This randomised double-blind controlled trial aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Brahmi vati (tablets formed with Bacopa monnieri) in the management of generalised anxiety disorder (GAD), compared with Manasmitra vataka (a multi herb ayurvedic formula). The study included 56 adults, aged 20–60 years, with GAD. Participants were randomised into two groups, with the brahmi group receiving 500 mg Brahmi vati three times daily, while the comparison group received 500 mg Manasmitra vataka three times daily, both taken with water for 45 days.

    Primary and secondary outcomes included anxiety severity measured by Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HARS) and GAD-7, alongside depression, daytime sleepiness, sleep quality, quality of life and global clinical improvement, assessed using BDI, ESS, PSQI, WHOQOL-BREF and CGI; safety was monitored using haemoglobin, ESR, liver function tests and serum creatinine.

    Both treatments produced statistically significant improvements across anxiety, depression, sleep, quality of life and global improvement scores (p < 0.001), with Brahmi vati additionally producing significant reductions in systolic (p = 0.002) and diastolic blood pressure (p < 0.001). Overall Brahmi vati and Manasmitra vataka were found to be similarly effective and safe for GAD over 45 days, although larger and longer-term trials are needed (13).

    Evaluating the effects of Bacopa monnieri on cognitive performance and sleep quality of patients with mild cognitive impairment: A triple-blinded, randomised, placebo-controlled trial

    This randomised controlled study examined the effects of Bacopa monnieri on cognitive performance and sleep quality in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). A total of 62 adult participants diagnosed with MCI were divided into an intervention group and a control group.

    The intervention group received 160 mg Bacopa monnieri extract daily for two months, while the control group received a placebo in the form of a starch pill. Primary outcome measures included cognitive performance assessed using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and sleep quality assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), measured at baseline, one month, and two months. Secondary outcomes included specific cognitive domains such as attention and verbal fluency.

    Results showed no significant difference between groups in overall cognitive scores at earlier time points, although a significant improvement was observed at the end of the study (p = 0.029) and at one month (p = 0.033) and two months (p = 0.004) and verbal fluency improving at two months (p = 0.003). Although no significant effect on overall sleep quality was found, Bacopa monnieri demonstrated modest benefits for cognitive performance, particularly in specific domains, but did not improve sleep quality in patients with mild cognitive impairment (14).

  • Historical use of brahmi

    Brahmi is documented in ancient Indian texts as far back as the 6th Century being widely used to promote intellect and treat ‘dis’-eases of the mind. It was used in mental disorders, epilepsy (apasmara), mania and hysteria (unmada). It was seen specifically to enhance the quality of sadhaka pitta and this directly influences the nature of consciousness. It is widely used to aid recovery from exhaustion, stress and debility where there is aggravation of vata and is a specific herb for all conditions with a deficient majja dhatu (1,7).

    Brahmi has been included in Ayurvedic formulations such as Brahmi Ghrita, Brahmighritam, Brahmirasayanam, Saraswatarishta, Saraswat Choorna which are applied to treat epilepsy and cognitive disorders (7). Other applications include its use for diarrhoea, memory enhancement, blood purification and urinary problems (8). 

  • Brahmi’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

  • Brahmi’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What can I use brahmi for?

    Brahmi can be predominantly thought of as a brain tonic, due to its nootropic and neuroprotective effects. It has the dual effect of supporting memory and improving cognitive functioning and learning ability, whilst also protecting brain cells against degeneration. Its protective action upon the brain is likely to include a reduction in oxidative damage and inflammation that is commonly associated with ageing and ill-health (1,2).

    In Ayurveda, it is considered a nervine tonic and rejuvenative (rasayana) with an affinity for the nervous tissue (2). This means it can be considered in a convalescent plan, to help in recovery from illness, breakdown, injury or for support in chronic fatigue conditions (2,3).

    As an adaptogen, brahmi is also essentially calming as well as restorative, to be considered in anxiety and tension conditions, helping the body to adapt to stress. Research even suggests it may be helpful in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (2,3).

  • Did you know?

    Brahman is the Hindu name given to the universal consciousness and Brahma is the divinity responsible for all ‘creative’ forces in the world. Brahmi literally means the ‘energy’ or ‘shakti’ of Brahman (1).

  • Botanical description

    Brahmi is a creeping perennial plant that loves water and is often found spreading across river banks. It is a small, prostrate, glabrous and fleshy herb with particularly soft and succulent leaves.

    The stems of the plant are 10–30 cm in length.

    Brahmi flowers are blue or white with purple veins and are often larger than the leaves. It can also be found in higher altitudes, up to 1300 m (15).

  • Common names

    • Brahmi (Sanskrit)
    • Water hyssop
    • Bacopa
    • Thyme-leafed gratiola
    • Herb of grace
    • Indian pennywort
    • Herpestis (Eng)
    • Jalabrahmi (Hindi)

  • Habitat

    Brahmi grows in freshwater or terrestrial inland waters, mostly in wet soil or shallow waters. It is native to the wetlands of southern and Eastern India, Australia, Europe, Africa, Asia, and North and South America (15,16).

  • How to grow brahmi

    Brahmi, also known as water hyssop, is a very easy plant to grow provided it gets good warmth and plenty of water. Dry conditions do threaten this plant. Always keep in mind this plant’s habits for spreading, and be prepared to trim it back regularly to keep it under control.

    Propagation from cuttings is the easiest method to grow this plant, and seed propagation is not recommended. The seeds are very small, and successful germination can be difficult to achieve. If attempting to propagate from seed- plant seeds close to the surface in a sunny location. The soil will need to be kept constantly moist as the seeds germinate and sprout. The seedlings are small and delicate, in order to transplant them they will need to be allowed considerable time to grow beforehand.

    Bacopa prefers wet soil or shallow water. It grows at an incredible range of altitudes, from sea level to 1350 m. It performs best in full sun to part shade in moist to wet soils. It tolerates waterlogged soil, brackish water, wind, and salt spray. 

    Needs regular moisture and will grow directly in fresh or slightly brackish water or along the banks of streams, ponds, or aquariums.

    Soil quality for this species is best in acidic to neutral (5.0 to 7.0).

    Please note: Water hyssop is regarded as a seriously invasive plant in many parts of the world. The root system is vast and spreads rapidly, and the plant has the potential for displacing native plants that serve important functions in a local ecosystem, such as providing food for native species of fish and other aquatic wildlife (17).

  • Herbal preparation of brahmi

    • Dried herb
    • Tincture
    • Capsule

  • Plant parts used

    Whole herb — i.e., leaves, stems, flowers, rhizomes, seeds, roots are traditionally used, but modern preparations are most often extracts of the stem and leaves

  • Dosage

    • Tincture (ratio 1:5| 45%): 2–5 ml between 2–3 times a day
    • Infusion/decoction: 1–3 g per day (1,5)
    • Standardised extracts typically containing up to 50% bacosides are between 300–600 mg per day (18).

  • Constituents

    • Triterpenoid saponins: Bacosides A, B and C
    • Triterpenes: Betulinic acid, asiatic acid
    • Flavonoids: Luteolin, apigenin, quercetin, wogonin
    • Alkaloids: Brahmine and herpestine (19)

  • Brahmi recipe

    Brain support tea

    This tea can be used to increase concentration, learning and memory making it helpful in preparation for exams.

    Ingredients

    How to make brahmi tea

    • Add all ingredients together in a bowl and mix well. 
    • Add 1–2 heaped teaspoons per cup.  
    • Pour over boiling water and allow it to steep for 5–10 minutes. 
    • Drink 2–3 cups per day.  
5 herbs to enhance your mood in winter

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  • Safety

    Brahmi is considered a generally safe herb with minimal side effects, although it can cause digestive upset in some individuals (20). There is a lack of reliable safety data with regard to its safety during pregnancy and breastfeeding. It is, therefore, not recommended unless under the guidance of a medical herbalist (2,3). 

  • Interactions

    Brahmi may have an additive sedative effect when taken in conjunction with benzodiazepines, sedative antihistamines and hypnotics (20). May also have additive effects when combined with cholinergic medication (20). 

    It should be avoided in conjunction with thyroid medication (levothyroxine) and with antihypertensive medication (20, 21). Brahmi may also increase the effect of cytochrome P450 substrates (21).

  • Contraindications

    Not suitable for people with hyperthyroidism or Graves disease (2,10).

  • Sustainability status of brahmi

    According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants this species is assessed as ‘least concern’ as it is widespread with stable populations and does not face any major threats (22). The American Botanical Council (ABC), however, mentions that due to increased demand the plant is under threat (23). It is predominantly considered at threat in parts of India due to its popularity in herbal medicine and calls for it to be propagated through plant tissue culture strategy (24).

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Bacopa monnieri is commonly cultivated in India and South Asia. The biggest adulteration risk is through substitution with Centella asiatica as they are both called brahmi in Ayurveda. Although this isn’t a direct safety issue, these plants are distinct in their phytochemistry and medicinal applications (25).

  • References

    1. Frawley D, Lad V. The Yoga of Herbs : An Ayurvedic Guide to Herbal Medicine. Lotus Press; 2008.
    2. Pole S. Ayurvedic Medicine : The Principles of Traditional Practice. Singing Dragon; 2013.
    3. Mcintyre A. Complete Herbal Tutor : The Definitive Guide to the Principles and Practices of Herbal Medicine (Second Edition). Aeon Books Limited; 2019.
    4. Wood M. The Practice of Traditional Western Herbalism : Basic Doctrine, Energetics, and Classification. North Atlantic Books, Cop; 2004.
    5. Bone K, Mills S. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. 2nd ed. Edinburgh Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier; 2013.
    6. Mcintyre A. Herbal Treatment of Children : Western and Ayurvedic Perspectives. Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann; 2005.
    7. Choudhary S, Kumari I, Thakur S, Kaurav H, Chaudhary G. BRAHMI (BACOPA MONNIERI)– A POTENTIAL AYURVEDIC COGNITIVE ENHANCER AND NEUROPROTECTIVE HERB. International Journal of Ayurveda and Pharma Research. Published online July 1, 2021:41-49. https://doi.org/10.47070/ijapr.v9i5.1917 
    8. Gościniak A, Stasiłowicz-Krzemień A, Szeląg M, et al. Bacopa monnieri: Preclinical and Clinical Evidence of Neuroactive Effects, Safety of Use and the Search for Improved Bioavailability. Nutrients. 2025;17(11):1939-1939. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17111939 
    9. Romm AJ, Hardy ML, Mills S, Abascal K. Botanical Medicine for Women’s Health. Churchill Livingstone; 2010.
    10. Benson S, Downey LA, Stough C, Wetherell M, Zangara A, Scholey A. An Acute, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Cross-over Study of 320 mg and 640 mg Doses ofBacopa monnieri(CDRI 08) on Multitasking Stress Reactivity and Mood. Phytotherapy Research. 2013;28(4):551-559. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.5029 
    11. Basheer A, Agarwal A, Mishra B, et al. Use of Bacopa monnieri in the Treatment of Dementia Due to Alzheimer Disease: Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Interactive Journal of Medical Research. 2022;11(2):e38542. doi:https://doi.org/10.2196/38542 
    12. Valotto Neto LJ, Reverete de Araujo M, Moretti Junior RC, et al. Investigating the Neuroprotective and Cognitive-Enhancing Effects of Bacopa monnieri: A Systematic Review Focused on Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Apoptosis. Antioxidants. 2024;13(4):393. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13040393 
    13. Khot SG, Tubaki BR, Gonugade VB. Efficacy of Brahmi vati in generalised anxiety disorder – Randomized double blind comparative clinical trial. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine. 2022;13(2):100552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaim.2022.100552 
    14. Delfan M, Kordestani-Moghaddam P, Gholami M, Kazemi K, Mohammadi R. Evaluating the effects of Bacopa monnieri on cognitive performance and sleep quality of patients with mild cognitive impairment: A triple-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. EXPLORE. Published online March 3, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2024.02.008 
    15. Royal Botanical Gardens Kew. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science. Plants of the World Online. Published 2018. Accessed April 29, 2026. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:1072674-2 
    16. Rojas-Sandoval J. Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop). CABI Compendium. 2022;CABI Compendium. https://doi.org/10.1079/cabicompendium.112638 
    17. World G. How to grow a bacopa plant. BBC Gardeners World Magazine. Published April 21, 2026. Accessed April 29, 2026. https://www.gardenersworld.com/how-to/grow-plants/bacopa-plant/?srsltid=AfmBOor92uku4Umxx-hkeV_5hK06-N0tVfD-Pe2JyIc8z65k_g1CbfdZ 
    18. C. S, P. N, J. L, et al. The chronic effects of an extract of Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) on cognitive function in healthy human subjects. Psychopharmacology. 2001;156(4):481-484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002130100815 
    19. Pengelly A. The Constituents of Medicinal Plants. Cab International; 2021.
    20. Williamson E, Driver S, Baxter K, Al E. Stockley’s Herbal Medicines Interactions : A Guide to the Interactions of Herbal Medicines, Dietary Supplements and Nutraceuticals with Conventional Medicines. Pharmaceutical Press; 2009.
    21. TRC Healthcare. NatMed Pro – Bacopa. Therapeuticresearch.com. Published 2025. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/Data/ProMonographs/Bacopa#drug-interactions 
    22. Lansdown R, Georgina S, Patzelt A. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Bacopa monnieri. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Published April 23, 2012. Accessed April 29, 2026. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/164168/17722668 
    23. Robbins S. Systematic Review Shows that Microbiome Augmentation May Improve Growth and Biochemical Makeup of Bacopa. ABC Herbalgram Website Herbalgram.org. Published 2026. Accessed April 29, 2026. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/herbclip/issues/2025/issue-773/microbiome-augmentation-bacopa/ 
    24. Sanyal R, Nandi S, Pandey S, et al. Biotechnology for propagation and secondary metabolite production in Bacopa monnieri. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2022;106(5-6):1837-1854. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-022-11820-6 
    25. Orhan N. Adulteration of bacopa (Bacopa monnieri). Botanical Adulterants Prevention Bulletin. Austin, TX: ABC-AHP-NCNPR. Botanical Adulterants Prevention Program. Published online 2025. https://umb.herbalgram.org/media/0b2btzml/bapp-babs-bacopa-04142025-v1.pdf 

Meet our herbal experts

Rebecca Collison-Walker
- Herbalist

Dedicated to the path of natural health and healing, Rebecca Collison-Walker has worked in complementary health for over 10 years.

Read Rebecca's articles

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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