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We share traditional, scientific and practical insights written by experienced herbalists and health experts from the world of herbal medicine and natural health

  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Considered a safe herb

    Sustainability

    Status: Low risk

    Key constituents

    Essential oils
    Sesquiterpene lactones
    Flavonoids

    Quality

    Europe
    cultivated
    Can be adulterated with other similar species including Anthemis

    Key actions

    Relaxant
    Nervine
    Carminative
    Antispasmodic

    Key indications

    Anxiety
    Irritation
    Digestive discomfort
    Eczema

    Key energetics

    Cool
    Dry

    Preperation and dosage

    Flowers
    6–12 g/per day
    Tincture (1:2 | 45%): 3–6 ml daily

  • How does it feel?

    The initial scent of dried chamomile flowers is floral with hints of apple and new-mown hay, due to its coumarins. This is followed by the characteristic aroma of the volatile oils, which is a creamy vanilla bean odour with slightly nutty tones.

    Upon tasting, the flavour remains floral, with bitter undertones indicative of its volatile oil and sesquiterpene content. The coumarins account for the sweet herbaceous impression and the flavonoids offer a dry astringent feeling and bitter finish.

    Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla)
    Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla)
    Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla)

  • Into the heart of chamomile

    Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla)
    Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla)

    Energetically, chamomile is considered a cooling, relaxing and aromatic herb and suited to tension, inflamed states and nervous hypersensitivity. For this reason, it has long been regarded as one of the most effective remedies in sensitive individuals and children (5).

    As a gentle astringent, it is drying and helps to soothe and dry excess secretions and inflammation, specifically with regard to mucous membranes in the respiratory and digestive systems (4,5). It helps to soften tension and agitation in nervous individuals. Wood describes it as a herb with a particular affinity for the gut-brain axis, helping to soothe both parts in equal measure (6).

    The Galenic tradition paradoxically considers chamomile to be warming in an energetic sense (7), whilst others consider it to be both, specifically warming for the digestive system and cooling in terms of reducing inflammatory states (4). 

    The essential oil that gives chamomile flowers their characteristic aroma and flavour contains sesquiterpenes and other constituents with a range of anti-inflammatory properties. On contact with hot water, one of these, matricin, further generates a distinctive, blue volatile oil (chamazulene) that also has these properties.

    Chamomile also contains flavonoids including apigenin which is a particularly strong anti-inflammatory and acts on neurotransmitters to calm an overactive nervous system (4,6). 

  • What practitioners say

    Nervous systemNervous system

    As a nervine, relaxant and mild sedative, chamomile can be applied to aid with restlessness, anxiety, irritability and insomnia. The relaxing effects can be felt from the nervous system throughout the body (1,2). The flavonoid apigenin interacts with GABA-A receptors in the central nervous system to bring a sense of calm and offer anxiolytic effects (9).

      Chamomile can be applied to help with insomnia and sleeplessness, especially if the cause is anxiety (4). It can be applied to any type of nervous tension, helping to relax tissues and discomfort (5). 

    Digestive

    Chamomile is indicated in digestive spasms, bloating, cramping, indigestion and colic. The antispasmodic actions relax intestinal spasm, and combined with its carminative properties it is a useful herb in the treatment of abdominal pain and cramping (2,4). It can also be applied in the treatment of diarrhoea, especially when the cause is of nervous origin.

    The flavonoids act to inhibit smooth muscle contraction, helping to relax tissues and relieve tension (4,5). The anti-inflammatory properties indicate it in a wide range of inflammatory bowel conditions, and it can also be applied to soothe stomach ulcers (1). 

    Respiratory

    As an inhalation (in steaming hot water) it is indicated in sinusitis, chronic asthma, bronchitis, hayfever and influenza. It helps to clear excess mucus and phlegm from the lungs in addition to reducing inflammation and reducing muscular tension in the respiratory system, particularly where this may be a result of infection (4,5).The volatile oils contribute to reducing inflammation in the airways, as well as provide antimicrobial properties (2). 

    Skin health 

    Chamomile’s anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and soothing properties are useful in a range of inflammatory skin conditions including dermatitis and eczema (2). It can also be applied to relieve wounds, burns, nappy rash, bites and stings. Chamomile flowers were traditionally added to children’s baths to help relax them before bed but also for soothing childhood eczema (2,4). 

    Eye health

    Chamomile is a soothing herb that can reduce minor eye irritation in the form of a cooled infusion applied as a compress. It can help to reduce soreness, redness and irritation of the eyes (4).  

  • Chamomile research

    Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla)
    Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla)

    Effects of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) on sleep: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials

    This systematic review and meta-analysis was carried out to evaluate the effect of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) on sleep quality. The analysis included 10 clinical trials with a total of 772 participants, consisting of adults with insomnia or sleep disturbances as well as some healthy populations. The studies evaluated various chamomile preparations including tea, capsules, extracts and aromatherapy, with treatment durations ranging from two to eight weeks.

    The primary outcome measure was sleep quality assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), while secondary outcomes included sleep latency, sleep duration and night awakenings. The meta-analysis showed a significant reduction in PSQI scores (weighted mean difference −1.88, 95% CI −3.46 to −0.31), indicating improved sleep quality.

    Chamomile particularly improved sleep maintenance and reduced night awakenings, although effects on sleep duration and daytime functioning were inconsistent. The authors concluded that chamomile shows promise in improving sleep quality (10). 

    The effect of oral chamomile on anxiety: A systematic review of clinical trials

    This systematic review examined chamomile in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Out of a total of 389 articles, 10 clinical trials involving adults with anxiety symptoms or diagnosed anxiety disorders were included. The interventions consisted of oral chamomile preparations (capsules, extracts or tea) administered over several weeks.

    The primary outcomes measured were validated anxiety scores such as the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A), while secondary outcomes included mood and stress measures. The review found that 9 out of the 10 clinical trials reported significant reductions in anxiety symptoms in the chamomile groups compared with control groups.

    The authors suggested that chamomile’s anxiolytic effects may relate to constituents such as apigenin influencing neurotransmitter pathways and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis. Overall, the review concluded that chamomile is a safe and effective herb with promising anxiolytic potential in the treatment of anxiety (9). 

    Anti-inflammatory effect of chamomile from randomized clinical trials: A systematic review and meta-analyses

    This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) and its anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial actions, focusing on clinical outcomes from randomised controlled trials. Eleven randomised clinical trials published between 2004 and 2024 involving adult human participants with conditions affecting oral mucosa, gingival tissues, or skin, primarily involving inflammatory or infectious oral conditions such as mucositis or gingival inflammation.

    The included studies investigated topical or oral chamomile preparations, including mouthwashes, gels, and extracts, administered for varying durations depending on the clinical trial design. The primary outcomes assessed in the meta-analysis included anti-inflammatory effects, pain severity, gingival bleeding, microbial load, mucosal inflammation, and gingival index, while secondary outcomes included mucosal recovery and wound healing indicators.

    Results showed that chamomile produced a statistically significant reduction in pain severity (−0.61; 95% CI −0.76 to −0.46) and significant improvements in mucosal inflammation and tissue recovery, supporting its anti-inflammatory and tissue-healing effects. The authors concluded that chamomile demonstrates significant anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects and supports mucosal healing (11). 

    Effectiveness of chamomile tea on glycemic control and serum lipid profile in patients with type 2 diabetes

    This single-blind randomised controlled clinical trial assessed the effects of chamomile tea on glycaemic control and serum lipid profile in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The study included 64 adults (male and female) aged between 30–60 years diagnosed with T2DM. Participants were randomly assigned to an intervention group (n = 32) or a control group (n = 32).

    The intervention group consumed chamomile tea prepared with 3 g of dried chamomile flowers in 150 ml of hot water, three times daily immediately after meals for eight weeks, while the control group consumed water over the same period.

    The primary outcome measures were markers of glycaemic control, including HbA1c, serum insulin levels, and insulin resistance measured using the homeostatic model assessment (HOMA-IR).

    Secondary outcomes included serum lipid parameters, specifically total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Results showed that chamomile tea consumption significantly reduced HbA1c (p = 0.03), insulin levels (p < 0.001), HOMA-IR (p < 0.001), total cholesterol (p = 0.001), triglycerides (p < 0.001), and LDL cholesterol (p = 0.05) compared with the control group.

    However, HDL cholesterol levels did not change significantly. The study concluded that chamomile tea may have beneficial effects on glycaemic control and lipid metabolism in patients with type 2 diabetes, suggesting potential metabolic effects of the plant (12). 

  • Historical use of chamomile

    Traditionally, chamomile has long been used to soothe digestive disturbances, especially when irritation and spasm is present (5). Culpeper placed chamomile under the dominion of the sun, and described it as warming, drying and strengthening to the stomach (7). It was seen to restore vitality by relieving cold, stagnant and weakened digestive systems. Chamomile tea was often prescribed to relieve wind, cramping, bloating and colic (7).

    The Eclectic physicians regarded chamomile as a herb that soothes nervous irritability arising from pain or spasm, indicating it specifically for colic in infants, digestive irritability and teething children (8). 

    As a topical application, it was often applied to soothe skin inflammation, and aid in the healing of wounds (7,8). It was regarded as a key herb with gentle, yet profound effects on multiple body systems. 

  • Chamomile’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

  • Chamomile’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What can I use chamomile for?

    Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla)
    Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla)

    As a carminative and anti-inflammatory,  chamomile is an accessible first choice for indigestion, colic, flatulence and other digestive upsets, especially when these are linked to stress and nervous tension (1,2). As an antispasmodic, it helps to relax smooth muscle in the digestive system and is indicated in gastrointestinal spasms, dyspepsia and functional digestive complaints (1,2). 

    The safest preparation  for use with children is a tea — to relieve insomnia, colic and general anxiety. It can also be used to treat diarrhoea in children as well as to calm restlessness, irritability or unsettled babies (1,3). The calming and antispasmodic actions also make chamomile a useful herb in the treatment of gum discomfort and irritability during teething (1). 

    There is a long tradition of chamomile as a women’s remedy, and it has been shown to be effective in treating dysmenorrhoea and amenorrhoea as well as with menopausal symptoms due to its nervine quality (1,2). 

    Chamomile helps to reduce irritation and inflammation in the upper respiratory tract and can often be applied in the form of a steam inhalation for respiratory infections and excess catarrh (1). 

    Externally, chamomile acts as an anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial and helps to soothe inflamed skin conditions, such as eczema, dermatitis and skin irritations (2). It can be applied as a cream, wash or ointments in such cases (4). 

  • Did you know?

    Gardeners often planted chamomile to improve the health and flavour of neighbouring plants, especially basil and mint. It was seen to strengthen surrounding plants and aid their recovery from stress or disease, and was referred to as a “doctor to the garden” (13).

  • Botanical description

    Chamomile is an annual plant with an erect, many branched stem growing to a height of 10–80 cm. The long and narrow leaves are bi- to tripinnate.

    The flower heads form separately at the end of each branching stem, they have a diameter of 10–30 mm, and they are pedunculate and heterogamous.

    The golden yellow tubular florets with five teeth are 1.5–2.5 mm long, ending always in a glandulous tube. The 11–27 white petals are 6–11 mm long, 3.5 mm wide, and arranged concentrically.

    The roots are thin and spindle-shaped only penetrating flatly into the soil.

    The receptacle is 6–8 mm wide, flat in the beginning and conical, cone-shaped later, hollow—the latter being a very important characteristic of true chamomile that can be used to discern between the other chamomiles and pineapple weed (which are often confused).

    True chamomile is also without paleae. The fruit is a yellowish brown achene (14).

  • Common names

    • Scented mayweed
    • German chamomile
    • Sweet false chamomile
    • Wild chamomile
    • Mayweed
    • Ground apple (Eng)
    • Kamillenblüten (Ger)
    • Feldkamille (Ger)
    • Fleur de camomile (Fr)
    • Matricaire (Fr)
    • Camomilla (Ital)
    • Karpurapushpa (Sanskrit)

  • Habitat

    Chamomile is native to southern and eastern Europe and Western Asia. It has spread through cultivation and can now be found as a naturalised plant in South America, Australia and Asia (15). It thrives in open areas with disturbed soil including meadows and fields (16).

  • How to grow chamomile

    Chamomile is easy to grow, and a great plant for attracting insects and bees into the garden. The seeds can be sown directly into a prepared seedbed in autumn, or indoors from March in pots. Either way, cover very thinly with a layer of vermiculite or compost as chamomile needs light to germinate.

     When seedlings are large enough to handle, prick out into individual pots. Plant well-rooted seedlings or bought plants into light, well-drained soil in a sunny position.

    Chamomile plants need very little care. Once established, they are fairly drought-tolerant.

    Water pot-grown plants regularly, ensuring there is sufficient drainage so the roots are not sitting in waterlogged compost (17).

  • Herbal preparation of chamomile

    • Fresh or dried herb
    • Infusion
    • Tincture
    • Fluid extract
    • Hydrosol
    • Essential oil
    • Topical: Cream and ointment

  • Plant parts used

    Flowers

  • Dosage

    • Tincture (1:2 | 45%): ​​Take between 3–6 ml per day (1,18)
    • Infusion/decoction:  6–12 g daily (1,18) 
    • For compresses, washes, gargles and topical applications, use preparation of between 3–10% chamomile flowers (1).

  • Constituents

    • Essential oils (0.3 – 1.5%): Up to 50% of sesquiterpenes (-)-a-bisabolol and its oxides A, B and C, chamazulene (sesquiterpene derivative)
    • Sesquiterpene lactones: Matricin and matricarin 
    • Flavonoids (up to 6%): Apigenin-7-glucoside, luteolin, quercetin, isorhamnetin
    • Coumarins: Herniarin and umbelliferone
    • Phenolic acids: Caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid
    • Polysaccharides (up to 10%) (1,16)

    Chamazulene is only generated by steam distillation of matricin. In other words, it will only appear when hot water is added to the flowers. It reaches its highest levels when the tea is covered with a saucer or lid so that steam can condense and drop back into the tea.

  • Chamomile recipe

    Digestive support tea

    This tea can be made following a meal to aid digestion. 

    Ingredients

    How to make a digestive chamomile tea

    • Combine all the herbs together in a bowl. 
    • Mix gently so all herbs are evenly distributed. 
    • Store in an airtight container. 
    • Use between 1–3 teaspoons per 250 ml boiling water.  
    • Infuse the mixture for 10–15 minutes in a teapot. 
    • Strain and drink warm.   
Chamomile: An anti-inflammatory for oral health

Chamomile: An anti-inflammatory for oral health

  • Safety

    Chamomile is considered a very safe and well tolerated herb and is safe for us with children and infants as well as during pregnancy and breastfeeding (1,2,18). 

    Rare allergic reactions are reported for the use of chamomile, these are mostly when the chamomile is adulterated with other flowers. People with a sensitivity or allergy to plants in the Asteraceae (daisy) family should avoid taking chamomile (2,16).

    Chamomile can rarely cause contact dermatitis in some individuals (1).

  • Interactions

    Chamomile is known to weakly inhibit CYP3A4 and CYP1A2; however, this is unlikely to be clinically significant, owing to its relative low potency compared with pharmaceutical inhibitors (3). Theoretically, it may have additive effects when combined with central nervous system (CNS) depressants, but this has not been confirmed in clinical trials (19).

  • Contraindications

    None known (1,2,16,18).

  • Sustainability status of chamomile

    According to the IUCN Red List  chamomile is classified as ‘Least Concern’ due to its widespread distribution, stable populations and no major threats (20,21). 

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

     

  • Quality control

    Chamomile is predominantly cultivated for medicinal use, due to its growing habitat (1). Adulteration has historically been common, and chamomile can be substituted with other related Matricaria species and others of the genera Anthemis, Tanacetum, and Chrysanthemum. These other varieties, especially Anthemis cotula can cause allergic reactions including allergic dermatitis. As a result, it is recommended to ensure accurate botanical identification and source from reputable suppliers only (22). 

  • References

    1. Bone K, Mills S. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. 2nd ed. Edinburgh Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier; 2013.
    2. Mcintyre A. Complete Herbal Tutor : The Definitive Guide to the Principles and Practices of Herbal Medicine (Second Edition). Aeon Books Limited; 2019.
    3. Williamson E, Driver S, Baxter K, Al E. Stockley’s Herbal Medicines Interactions : A Guide to the Interactions of Herbal Medicines, Dietary Supplements and Nutraceuticals with Conventional Medicines. Pharmaceutical Press; 2009.
    4. Hedley C, Shaw N. Plant Medicine. (Waddell G, ed.). Aeon Books; 2023.
    5. Hoffmann D. Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Healing Arts Press; 2003.
    6. Wood M. The Earthwise Herbal : A Complete Guide to New World Medicinal Plants. Berkeley, Calif. North Atlantic Books; 2009.
    7. Culpeper N. Culpeper’s Complete Herbal & English Physician. Applewood Books; 2011.
    8. King J, Felter HW, Lloyd JU. King’s American Dispensatory. Ohio Valley Co; 1905.
    9. Saadatmand S, Zohroudi F, Tangestani H. The Effect of Oral Chamomile on Anxiety: A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials. Clinical nutrition research. 2024;13(2):139-139. https://doi.org/10.7762/cnr.2024.13.2.139 
    10. Kazemi A, Shojaei-Zarghani S, Eskandarzadeh P, Hashempur M. Effects of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) on sleep: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials. Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 2024;84:103071-103071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2024.103071 
    11. Valmy J, Greenfield S, Shindo S, Kawai T, Cervantes J, Hong BY. Anti-inflammatory effect of chamomile from randomized clinical trials: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Pharmaceutical Biology. 2025;63(1):490-502. https://doi.org/10.1080/13880209.2025.2530995 
    12. Rafraf M, Zemestani M, Asghari-Jafarabadi M. Effectiveness of chamomile tea on glycemic control and serum lipid profile in patients with type 2 diabetes. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation. 2014;38(2):163-170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40618-014-0170-x 
    13. McKay DL, Blumberg JB. A Review of the bioactivity and potential health benefits of chamomile tea (Matricaria recutita L.). Phytotherapy Research. 2006;20(7):519-530. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1900 
    14. Singh O, Khanam Z, Misra N, Srivastava M. Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.): An overview. Pharmacognosy Reviews. 2011;5(9):82. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.79103 
    15. The Wildlife Trust. Chamomile | The Wildlife Trusts. www.wildlifetrusts.org. Published 2026. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/wildflowers/chamomile 
    16. Fisher C. Materia Medica of Western Herbs. Aeon Books; 2018.
    17. RHS. Chamomile. www.rhs.org.uk. Published 2026. https://www.rhs.org.uk/herbs/chamomile/grow-your-own 
    18. Mills S, Bone K. The Essential Guide to Herbal Safety. Elsevier Churchill Livingstone; 2005.
    19. TRC Healthcare. NatMed Pro – German Chamomile. Therapeuticresearch.com. Published 2026. Accessed March 5, 2026. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/Data/ProMonographs/German-Chamomile#drug-interactions 
    20. Royal Botanical Gardens Kew. Chamomile – Chamaemelum nobile | Plants | Kew. www.kew.org. https://www.kew.org/plants/chamomile 
    21. IUCN Redlist. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Published 2025. Accessed March 5, 2026. https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?taxonomies=110103&searchType=species 
    22. Mahgoub YA, Shawky E, Darwish FA, El Sebakhy NA, El-Hawiet AM. Near-infrared spectroscopy combined with chemometrics for quality control of German chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.) and detection of its adulteration by related toxic plants. Microchemical Journal. 2020;158:105153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2020.105153 

Meet our herbal experts

Rebecca Collison-Walker
- Herbalist

Dedicated to the path of natural health and healing, Rebecca Collison-Walker has worked in complementary health for over 10 years.

Read Rebecca's articles

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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