A voice for
herbal medicine

We share traditional, scientific and practical insights written by experienced herbalists and health experts from the world of herbal medicine and natural health

  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Not suitable during pregnancy and lactation. Can cause additive effects with anxiolytics. May cause headaches in high doses

    Sustainability

    Status: Lower risk

    Key constituents

    Triterpenoid saponins
    Essential oils
    Flavonoids
    Polyacetylenes

    Quality

    Tropical regions
    Wild harvested and cultivated
    Heavy metal contamination risks

    Key actions

    Adaptogenic
    Vulnerary
    Depurative
    Nervine

    Key indications

    Poor cognition
    Stress
    Tissue damage
    Inflammatory skin conditions

    Key energetics

    Cool
    Dry
    Tonifying
    Bitter

    Preperation and dosage

    Aerial parts
    up to 30 g/per day
    Tincture: 1:3 |in 25%, 5–15 ml per day

  • How does it feel?

    Fresh gotu kola has an aromatic odour, slightly reminiscent of tobacco.  The taste will first provide a strong bitter hit quickly complemented by a gentle sweetness and aromatic taste. The bitterness rolls away leaving the sweetness to dominate leaving a sweet and aromatic aftertaste.

    The sweetness of gotu kola is due to the high levels of triterpene saponins that are the most significant therapeutic constituents.

    Gotu kola (Centella asiatica)
    Gotu kola (Centella asiatica)
    Gotu kola (Centella asiatica)

  • Into the heart of gotu kola

    Gotu kola (Centella asiatica)
    Gotu kola (Centella asiatica)

    Energetically, gotu kola is considered cooling with light, drying or astringent qualities. The cooling action may be associated with its blood purifying effects, as, in Ayurveda it is seen to counter the ‘heat’ that corrupts blood tissue (Rakta dhatu)(4).

    In the Ayurvedic materia medica, gotu kola is considered one of the most spiritual herbs in India. It is often used to enhance the effects of meditative practices, as it is known to calm the mind and increase focus (4). 

    In Ayurvedic medicine there is a different model and understanding of holistic physiology that is used as a way to understand patterns of imbalance. Ayurveda also has its own unique philosophy and understanding of herbal qualities that has been established over thousands of years.

    There are three doshas: Vata, pitta and kapha. Their energies are believed to circulate in the body and govern physical, mental and emotional characteristics. They are described as follows: Vata — controls basic bodily functions as well as the mind; pitta — governs metabolism, digestion and hormones linked to appetite; kapha — is responsible for strength and stability, muscle growth, weight and the immune system. 

    Gotu kola is described in Ayurveda as having a VPK (vata, pitta, kapha) effect. This means that it has the herbal energetic qualities of vata (that work on the nerve channels) and that it reduces excess of kapha and pitta. Its astringent and purifying actions help to reduce  sluggishness or congestion in the tissues, whilst its cooling action reduces  excess heat or excitation (a common expression of pitta dominance in the body). These constitutional diagnostics and ways of prescribing are unique to practitioners who spend many years understanding the principles of Ayurveda (4).

    Gotu kola is a powerful nervine (a herb that has a calming effect on the nervous system) that brings balance to the two hemispheres of the brain (2). It has a number of mind enhancing, calming and uplifting properties making it an excellent herb to use in psychospiritual imbalances (4). It is also referenced for use in some behavioural conditions such as autism,and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (4).

    Gotu kola has long been considered to possess anti-ageing effects, promoting longevity and vitality. These actions arise from its cerebrovascular supportive actions. It has been shown to reduce plaque formation, thereby supporting cardiovascular and cerebral health by mitigating the risk of neurodegenerative disease.  

  • What practitioners say

    Nervous systemNervous system

    Gotu kola improves concentration, memory and alertness. In conditions of stress, insomnia and emotional turbulence, gotu kola offers its relaxing actions. Managing behavioural and developmental imbalances such as spectrum disorders and ADHD can also be supported with the herb (4). Its relaxant and healing effects combined with its ability to reduce neuroinflammatory activity make it also an important remedy to support individuals with dementia, chronic fatigue syndrome and the after-effects of stroke (8).

    There is evidence that gotu kola enhances inherent cellular antioxidant performance and reduces tissue damage that results from stress and trauma. With an affinity for the central nervous system, gotu kola offers neuroprotective effects. As such, the herb is an effective remedy in cases of head trauma or injury, cognitive degeneration or mental fatigue (9,10).

    Gotu kola has sometimes been coupled with Bacopa monnieri, with both herbs being referred to as  ‘brahmi’ in Sanskrit and classified in Ayurveda as medhya rasayanas — remedies that improve memory, restore cognitive deficits and elevate mental function.

    Studies have shown that gotu kola increases axonal regeneration and more rapid functional recovery of nerve tissue in vivo, which offers some mechanistic understanding of how it facilitates the repair of damaged nerves (3,8).

    Skin health 

    Gotu kola is an impressive and diverse healing agent. Laboratory studies indicate that it promotes collagen synthesis, a crucial factor in tissue regeneration and wound healing, whilst also reducing fibrosis and scarring (7). There is similar data to show that constituents in gotu kola can significantly reduce local inflammation (11).

    Gotu kola is a specific herb for inflammatory skin conditions, such as eczema, urticaria and acne. Its systemic impact upon collagen synthesis and blood vessel repair mechanisms have made it a valuable herb for treatment of deep tissue damage, but also where the surface of the skin has been damaged through injury or chronic skin conditions (4,7).

    These combined properties make gotu kola a choice remedy when stress and inflammatory conditions coincide; for example, for eczema, psoriasis, and inflammatory gastrointestinal conditions.

    Gotu kola contains high levels of flavonoids, which have antioxidant properties (11). The actions of flavonoids also contribute to gotu kola’s ability to improve microcirculation in the skin, contributing to one of gotu kola’s most renowned effects as a powerful wound healer (4).

    Cardiovascular system

    Gotu kola also exhibits powerful actions on the cardiovascular system by improving the integrity of blood vessel walls and endothelium. Consequently, gotu kola supports general circulation to all tissues and organs (12).

    Gotu kola may be used both externally and internally for venous insufficiency and may be included in topical and internal formulas for treating varicosities (such as haemorrhoids and various veins) (13).

    Musculoskeletal system

    Gotu kola is traditionally used for arthritis, gout and joint inflammation, with a history of use to reduce inflammatory damage in rheumatic and other inflammatory joint problems (14). These effects may be related to its blood detoxifying actions, which help to clear metabolic waste and toxins that can exacerbate musculoskeletal inflammatory conditions (4).

  • Gotu kola research

    Gotu kola (Centella asiatica)
    Gotu kola (Centella asiatica)

    A systematic review of the effect of Centella asiatica on wound healing

    This systematic review evaluated the effects of Centella asiatica on wound healing in a total of 373 human subjects across four clinical trials. Participants presented with either acute or chronic wounds including diabetic ulcers, burns, anal fissures or acne lesions. Participants received either oral Centella asiatica extracts (50 mg asiaticoside three times daily or 60 mg twice daily) or topical preparations (0.05%–3% Centella asiatica formulations) for 7–21 days, depending on the study.

    Results showed Centella asiatica significantly improved wound contraction, accelerated healing and re-epithelialisation, reduced pain and inflammation, and enhanced wound appearance compared with controls. The authors suggested these actions were as a result of increased collagen I synthesis, fibroblast proliferation, VEGF and FGF production to promote angiogenesis, alongside reductions in inflammatory mediators including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, PGE₂, COX-2 and LOX (15). 

    An experimental study on the effects of gotu kola on post-stroke cognitive impairment

    An experimental design study was carried out to determine the effectiveness of gotu kola in improving cognitive function in patients with vascular cognitive impairment (VCI). The study recruited 48 patients with post-stroke cognitive impairment. The subjects were divided into three groups and either treated with 1000 mg or 750 mg of gotu kola extract,  or 3 mg folic acid a day for a period of six weeks.

    The study showed that all three treatment groups experienced improvements in cognitive impairment after stroke infarction, suggesting that gotu kola was found to be as effective as folic acid in improving post stroke VCI. Participants in the gotu kola treatment group had a greater improvement than those taking folic acid in the memory recall assessment (16).

    Titrated extract of gotu kola in the treatment of venous insufficiency of the lower limbs

    A double-blind placebo study recruited ninety-four patients suffering from venous insufficiency of the lower limbs to investigate the potential of gotu kola in therapy. The subjects were randomised to receive titrated extract of gotu kola (TECA) at 120 mg a day, TECA 60 mg a day, or a placebo over a period of two months.

    The groups receiving gotu kola extract showed significant improvements in symptoms of heaviness in the lower limbs and oedema. The venous distensibility and occlusion pressures also showed a positive improvement in the gotu kola groups, the placebo group, however, showed aggravation in the latter (14). 

    Flight microangiopathy in medium- to long-distance flights: prevention of edema and microcirculation alterations with total triterpenic fraction of Centella asiatica

    A randomised placebo control study was carried out to evaluate the effects of gotu kola in microcirculatory alterations associated with oedema in airline passengers travelling for more than three hours.

    The treatment group of adults aged between 30 and 50 years old received 60 mg at three times a day of triterpenic fraction of gotu kola for two days before the flight, the day of the flight, and for another day after the flight. The control group received a placebo. Clinical signs, such as a progressive increase in CO2, rate of ankle swelling (RAS), oedema score, and a progressive decrease in flux (RF) and venoarteriolar response with flying time were observed.

    The study results demonstrated that in the gotu kola group, variations in all parameters were milder as well as significant reductions in RAS and oedema,  suggesting that gotu kola may have some potential as an agent to prevent microcirculatory alterations and oedema (18).

    Systemic reviews, clinical studies and in vitro findings

    Much of the clinical trial evidence relates to a standardised extract of gotu kola known as ‘total triterpenic fraction’ (TTF), made up of 40% asiaticoside, 30% asiatic acid and 30% madecassic acid with doses at 60 to 180 mg/day.Up to 8% in the plant these levels of triterpenes are likely to be met with the recommended daily doses of whole herb.

    Various studies have shown that gotu kola extracts have a protective effect against various neurological diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, learning and memory enhancement, neurotoxicity and other mental illnesses such as depression,anxiety, and epilepsy (19).

  • Historical use of gotu kola

    Gotu kola has a documented history of use that spans 2,000 years in both India as well as within traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Its traditional use classifies its use as one of the key medhya rasayana herbs, that rejuvenated the body and specifically the nervous system (4).  

    It balances all three doshas and benefits the skin and bhrajaka pitta through its ability to hasten wound healing and reduce scarring. For mental and nervous conditions it is used where there is pitta/vata aggravation. Excess pitta may present as irritability, overexcitability or anger and aggravated vata is associated with increased anxiety, restlessness, insomnia and nervous exhaustion.

    It supports the brain by nourishing majjadhatu, the tissue that surrounds the brain, spinal cord, nervous system and bone marrow. It also offers support for sadhaka pitta, which governs the intellect, perception and emotional processing (5). 

    In TCM, it has traditionally been used to clear heat and heat-toxin, resolve dampness, treat skin inflammation and promote wound healing (6). 

  • Gotu kola’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • Gotu kola’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What can I use gotu kola for?

    Gotu kola (Centella asiatica)
    Gotu kola (Centella asiatica)

    Gotu kola is revered as a great herb for use with meditative practices, owing to its calming effect on the nervous system and ability to expand awareness. As a rejuvenative tonic, with a particular effect upon the brain and nervous system, gotu kola can be used to help restore cerebral functioning that may have been compromised due to excess stress, trauma or illness. Cognitive functions can also be supported with gotu kola, improving memory, learning and recall if taken consistently over a prolonged duration (1,2).

    Gotu kola is one of the most prominent healers in traditional medicine systems in southeast Asia, where the plant is native to. With a long history of use in the treatment of skin complaints and wounds, gotu koa assists the healing  of wounds and skin problems, including ulcers and weeping eczema. As a skin remedy, the herb may be applied as both internal and external applications.

    Gotu kola has a number of actions that may make it helpful in gastric ulcers and reflux by moderating digestive enzymes and stomach acidity. Taken as a tea or in capsule form, the herb may be used to help with digestive conditions (3).

    During times of acute stress and anxiety, gotu kola has been used traditionally in Ayurvedic medicine to help calm the nerves, bringing peace and stillness to the mind in (3).

  • Did you know?

    The Sanskrit name mandukaparni refers to the shape of gotu kola’s leaves resembling the webbed feet of a frog. (4)

    The gotu kola leaf also looks like the cerebellum, which according to the doctrine of signatures — an ancient theory that postulates that a plant’s morphological resemblance is indicative of its therapeutic use — translates to its renowned use for promoting intellect, soothing the nervous system and for general mind-enhancing properties.

    It is sometimes referred to as Hydrocotyle asiatica in older texts and this name is derived from the Ancient Greek for water, hudor, and cup, kylix, describing the plant’s natural habitat and the appearance of its cup-shaped leaves (4).

  • Botanical description

    Gotu kola, a member of the celery family, is a slender herbaceous creeper found across India, Sri Lanka, China, South Africa and South America and favours moist habitats at altitudes of up to 2500 m. The plant has diffuse underground parts: its rhizomes are covered in root hairs and produce an intricate network of stolons.

    The stems are very slender and often red in colour and produce kidney-shaped (reniform) leaves in rosettes up to 5 cm in diameter at each stem node. The flowers are a delicate pale violet or pink. The plant has a smell similar to that of tobacco (24).

  • Common names

    • Indian pennywort
    • Hydrocotle (Eng)
    • Asiatische Sumpfpfennigkraut (Ger)
    • Kula kudi (Hindi)
    • Mandukaparni (Sanskrit)

  • Habitat

    Gotu kola is native to tropical regions of India, Africa, Asia, Sri Lanka and islands in the western Pacific Ocean (25).

  • How to grow gotu kola

    Gotu kola is easy to grow and will thrive both in or out of a pot. It sends out root runners that can sprout into new plants so caution should be exercised to ensure the plant doesn’t excessively spread. This is particularly a concern in tropical climates where it has become invasive and impacted biodiversity (28). 

    Gotu kola will grow in most soil types; however, it prefers moist rich soil and requires near-daily watering. It prefers specific light conditions in dappled sun. Though it may tolerate full sun, it will thrive best in warmer areas out of direct sunlight but not in full shade.  

    The seeds may be planted in spring or autumn, spacing them between 9–12 inches apart in the garden. They may also be planted in pots for starting indoors in cooler climes. Gently press the seeds into the moist soil mixed with equal parts coarse sand or perlite. Keep them moist at all times. Germination will take place between 30–90 days. Wait until the weather warms before transplanting them into the garden or flower pots on the patio.

    Keep an eye on young plants for aphids and mealybugs. A neem oil spray or insecticidal soap may be applied to severe infestations. 

  • Herbal preparation of gotu kola

    • Tincture 
    • Infusion 
    • Powder 
    • Fresh leaf or juice

  • Plant parts used

    Aerial parts

  • Dosage

    • Fresh juice: In India, gotu kola is commonly eaten fresh or taken as a fresh juice. Daily dosage of fresh juice is recommended at 25 ml.
    • Tincture (1:3 | 25%): Take between 3–5 ml in a little water up to three times a day.
    • Infusion: To make a decoction place between 3–5 g (up to a maximum 30 g per day) of dried material in one cup of boiling water, infuse for between 15–20 minutes. This should be drunk hot three times a day (3,4,21).

  • Constituents

    • Triterpene saponins (pentacyclic ursane type, ‘centellosides’): Mainly asiaticoside and madecassoside, and their corresponding sapogenins asiatic and madecassic acids
    • Essential oil: Myrcene, farnesene, germacrene, caryophyllene and pinene
    • Flavonoids
    • Polyacetylenes
    • Pentacyclic triterpenoids: These are widely distributed in many medicinal plants, such as liquorice, green tea, hawthorn, as well as gotu kola; some have shown effects on glucose absorption, insulin secretion, diabetic vascular dysfunction, retinopathy and nephropathy, all features of diabetes or prediabetic conditions (22).
    • Asiatic acid: Anti-inflammatory with antihypertensive, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, antimicrobial, and anti-tumour activities in preclinical studies (23).

  • Gotu kola recipe

    Gotu kola salad recipe 

    Gotu kola is commonly eaten as a salad in Sri Lanka where it is used as a food and a medicine. 

    Ingredients 

    • 2 cups freshly chopped gotu kola leaves 
    • ½ a small red onion, finely sliced
    • 2 tbsp freshly grated coconut 
    • juice of half a lime 
    • ½ green chilli, finely chopped 
    • Sprinkle of salt 

    How to make gotu kola salad

    • Add the leaves and salt to a bowl and massage gently to release the flavour and soften the leaves. 
    • Add the remainder of the ingredients and serve. 
Adaptogens: Herbs to manage stress and stressful situations

Adaptogens: Herbs to manage stress and stressful situations

  • Safety

    Gotu kola should be avoided during pregnancy, due to its emmenagogue action. It should also be avoided during lactation (1,3,20,21).

    It can be known to augment the action of anxiolytics, use with caution (1,3,20,21)

    Large doses can cause headaches and vertigo. Reduce the dosage if any such symptoms occur (3,20,21).

  • Interactions

    Gotu kola inhibits liver enzymes that are responsible for barbiturate metabolism. Therefore, avoid use alongside barbiturates or benzodiazepines, as it could increase the effects of the medication. Caution should also be taken with blood sugar and cholesterol lowering medications as the triterpenoid saponins in gotu kola can decrease blood  glucose and cholesterol levels  (1,2,20,21).

  • Contraindications

    Gotu kola should be avoided with known allergies to the species or Apiaceae family (1,2,20,21).

  • Sustainability status of gotu kola

    In 2008, gotu kola was reported to have become depleted in the wild due to overharvesting . At the time, there were also reported to be limited cultivated sources. In India, the commercial supply is now obtained from both cultivated and wild sources (25). According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants Status, gotu kola is classified as ‘Least Concern’ due to it being widespread with stable subpopulations (26).

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    The American Botanical Council suggests that most of the gotu kola on the US market is of poor quality due to the fact that it is commonly harvested from ditches in India that were contaminated with heavy metals, pollutants, and other harmful chemicals (27).

    Gotu kola grows naturally by waterways such as streams and rivers. Due to the high levels of pollution in India’s waterways it is recommended to use only cultivated or organically grown gotu kola (3).

  • References

    1. McIntyre A. Complete Herbal Tutor: The Definitive Guide to the Principles and Practices of Herbal Medicine. 2nd ed. Aeon Books Limited; 2019.
    2. Thomsen M. Phytotherapy Desk Reference. 6th ed. Aeon Books; 2022.
    3. Alternative Medicine Review. Centella asiatica. 2007. Accessed October 25, 2023. https://altmedrev.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/v12-1-69.pdf
    4. Pole S. Ayurvedic Medicine: The Principles of Traditional Practice. Singing Dragon; 2013.
    5. Frawley D, Lad V. The Yoga of Herbs: An Ayurvedic Guide to Herbal Medicine. Motilal Banarsidass; 2016.
    6. Chen JK, Chen TT, Crampton L. Chinese Medical Herbology and Pharmacology. Art of Medicine Press; 2004.
    7. Incandela L. Modification of the echogenicity of femoral plaques after treatment with total triterpenic fraction of Centella asiatica: A prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Angiology. 2001;52(Suppl 2). Accessed August 23, 2024. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11666127/
    8. Lokanathan Y, Omar N, Puzi AN, Saim A, Idrus RH. Recent updates in neuroprotective and neuroregenerative potential of Centella asiatica. Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences. 2016;23(1):4-14.
    9. Orhan IE. Centella asiatica (L.) Urban: From traditional medicine to modern medicine with neuroprotective potential. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012;2012:1-8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/946259
    10. Gohil K, Patel J, Gajjar A. Pharmacological review on Centella asiatica: A potential herbal cure-all. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2010;72(5):546-556. https://doi.org/10.4103/0250-474X.78519
    11. Park KS. Pharmacological effects of Centella asiatica on skin diseases: Evidence and possible mechanisms. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2021;2021:5462633. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5462633
    12. Seo MG, Jo MJ, Hong NI, et al. Anti-inflammatory and anti-vascular leakage effects by combination of Centella asiatica and Vitis vinifera L. leaf extracts. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2021;2021:7381620. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/7381620
    13. Chong NJ, Aziz Z. A systematic review of the efficacy of Centella asiatica for improvement of the signs and symptoms of chronic venous insufficiency. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2013;2013:1-10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/627182
    14. Rotpenpian N, Arayapisit T, Roumwong A, Pakaprot N, Tantisira M, Wanasuntronwong A. A standardized extract of Centella asiatica (ECa 233) prevents temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis by modulating the expression of local inflammatory mediators in mice. Journal of Applied Oral Science. 2021;29. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-7757-2021-0329
    15. Arribas-López E, Zand N, Ojo O, Snowden MJ, Kochhar T. A systematic review of the effect of Centella asiatica on wound healing. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022;19(6):3266. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063266
    16. Farhana KM, Malueka RG, Wibowo S, Gofir A. Effectiveness of gotu kola extract 750 mg and 1000 mg compared with folic acid 3 mg in improving vascular cognitive impairment after stroke. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2016;2016:1-6. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2795915
    17. Pointel JP, Boccalon H, Cloarec M, Ledevehat C, Joubert M. Titrated extract of Centella asiatica (TECA) in the treatment of venous insufficiency of the lower limbs. Angiology. 1987;38(1):46-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/000331978703800106
    18. Cesarone MR, Incandela L, De Sanctis MT, et al. Flight microangiopathy in medium- to long-distance flights: Prevention of edema and microcirculation alterations with total triterpenic fraction of Centella asiatica. Angiology. 2001;52(Suppl 2):S33-S37. https://doi.org/10.1177/000331970105202S07
    19. Lokanathan Y, Omar N, Ahmad Puzi NN, Saim A, Idrus RH. Recent updates in neuroprotective and neuroregenerative potential of Centella asiatica. Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences. 2016;23(1):4-14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4975583/
    20. Montecchio GP, Samaden A, Carbone S, Vigotti M, Siragusa S, Piovella F. Centella asiatica triterpenic fraction (CATTF) reduces the number of circulating endothelial cells in subjects with post-phlebitic syndrome. Haematologica. 1991;76(3). Accessed August 24, 2024. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1743599/
    21. Natural Medicines. Gotu kola. Published 2024. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/databases/food
    22. Fisher C. Materia Medica of Western Herbs. Aeon Books; 2018.
    23. Alqahtani A, Hamid K, Kam A, et al. The pentacyclic triterpenoids in herbal medicines and their pharmacological activities in diabetes and diabetic complications. Current Medicinal Chemistry. 2013;20(7):908-931. Accessed January 30, 2023. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23210780/
    24. Nagoor Meeran MF, Goyal SN, Suchal K, Sharma C, Patil CR, Ojha SK. Pharmacological properties, molecular mechanisms, and pharmaceutical development of asiatic acid: A pentacyclic triterpenoid of therapeutic promise. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2018;9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2018.00892
    25. PlantNet. Apiaceae – Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Published 2022. http://publish.plantnet-project.org/project/plantinvasivekruger/collection/collection/synthese/details/CLLAS
    26. Engels G, Brinckmann J. Gotu Kola. American Botanical Council. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/herbalgram/issues/90/table-of-contents/herbalgram-90-herb-profile-gotu-kola/
    27. Lansdown RV. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Centella asiatica. Published 2018. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/168725/88308182
    28. Plants For A Future (PFAF). Centella asiatica (Gotu Kola, Spadeleaf). Published 2024. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Centella+asiatica

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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