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herbal medicine

We share traditional, scientific and practical insights written by experienced herbalists and health experts from the world of herbal medicine and natural health

  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Avoid in pregnancy and lactation

    Caution with high vata dosha

    Sustainability

    Caution: At risk from overharvesting and habitat loss. Only source cultivated supplies or from certified sustainable wild collection. FairWild certified.

    Key constituents

    Glucosides
    Anthroquinone
    Triterpenes
    Sitosterol

    Quality

    Country of origin: India and surrounding countries
    Mainly wild harvested

    Key actions

    Alterative
    Antioxidant
    Anti-inflammatory
    Vulnerary

    Key indications

    Skin issues
    Excess bleeding
    Menstrual disorders
    Tumours and stones

    Key energetics summary

    Sweet
    Bitter
    Astringent
    Cooling

    See below for discipline-specific energetics

    Preperation and dosage

    Root
    0.5–10 g/per day
    3–12 ml/day of a 1:3| 25% tincture

  • How does it feel?

    Manjistha feels calming and drying, with the bitterness neutralised by its sweet taste.

    Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia)
    Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia)
    Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia)

    The taste of manjistha

    The below qualities are derived from organoleptic assessment.

  • Into the heart of manjistha

    Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia)
    Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia)

    Manjistha is a key alterative or blood purifying herb in the Ayurvedic tradition. It is also one of the main herbs used to pacify pitta dosha (3). Its name literally translates as  ‘bright red’, attesting to its affinity with the blood, and its red pigment can, in some cases, be seen in the urine and breast milk (4).

    As it reduces excess pitta, it is useful in diseases of the tissues where high pitta is involved, such as skin (wounds, skin diseases) and eyes. It is an Ayurvedic medicine used extensively in the treatment of skin disorders and is categorised under the group of varnya herbs (that enhance the complexion of the skin) described in the the Charaka Samhita (5).

    Externally, it is also traditionally used as a paste with honey for skin discolouration and inflammation, or made into a paste with liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) to soothe damaged tissue.  European madder (Rubia tinctorum,) has similar properties and can be made a good substitute. 

    Manjistha is also used in the textile industry as a natural red dye and was a traditional antidote to poison in ancient India (3).

  • What practitioners say

    Skin healthSkin health

    Its affinity for blood tissue is specifically utilised to clean, cool and clear the blood of all excess pitta dosha heat, inflammation and toxins (ama). Used for itching in eczema, psoriasis, dermatitis, vitiligo, acne, acne rosacea and herpes. A key herb to help relieve pruritus when the liver and pitta are aggravated. Its circulatory invigorating properties make it an effective remedy for removing stubborn and chronic lesions.

    Also used in scabies and athlete’s foot. It also benefits these conditions when used as a wash or cream. It is also renowned for helping to clear the skin and giving a clear complexion (3). Combines well with neem (Azardirachta indica), turmeric (Curcuma longa), gotu kola (Centella asiatica) and aloe vera (Aloe vera) in skin conditions with high pitta (9).

    Cardiovascular system

    Manjishta helps to control bleeding by two methods, firstly by cooling the heat or excess pitta that is considered to cause blood to move out of its normal pathway and clearing blood stagnation which can contribute to bleeding (3). As such, it is indicated in diarrhoea with bleeding, Crohn’s disease, dysentery, bleeding ulcers and nosebleeds (10).

    It can also treat haemoptysis, epistaxis, menorrhagia, metrorrhagia and haematuria. It acts as a vulnerary and accelerates wound healing time for skin trauma and broken bones (11). It combines well with amla  (Phyllanthus emblica) for excess bleeding. 

    Reproductive system

    Manjistha is useful in cases of uterine and pelvic congestion as well as dysmenorrhoea, clots, amenorrhoea and endometriosis. In these cases it can be applied as a cold infusion and for all menstrual imbalances involving aggravations of pitta and kapha dosha disturbing the menstrual channel (artavasrotas).

    It is also used to prevent miscarriage and excessive uterine bleeding (12). Combines well with shatavari (Asparagus racemosus) and guggulu (Commiphora mukul) in congestion of the uterus with pain (6).

    Musculoskeletal system

    Manjishta can be used to clear accumulations of kapha dosha in the bladder, liver and kidneys. It combines well with guggulu and turmeric for tumours and accumulations all over the body. External, as well as internal use of manjistha is beneficial for fractures, along with arjuna (Terminalia arjuna) and liquorice  (Glycyrrhiza glabra) (4).

    Urinary system

    The pitta-reducing quality helps to clear pitta type diabetes, particular types of diabetes involving repeated infections, boils, inflammatory conditions, neuropathy, retinopathy and nephropathy. It is also specific for gradually dissolving kidney and bladder stones as the anthraquinones act as chelating agents helping to draw excess calcium from the system. It can also be applied to stop haematuria (12).

    For these conditions, it combines well with gokshura  (Tribulus terrestris) and  shilajit (Asphaltum) for bladder and kidney stones. Also, gokshura with coriander (Coriandrum sativum) for urinary discomfort with burning (9).

    Nervous

    Its cooling effect on pitta has a balancing effect on the emotions and is used in epilepsy, convulsions and agitation with high pitta (9). It gives relief to the nervous system but must not be given in high doses as it can cause manic hallucinations due to its increasing vata dosha (4)

  • Manjistha research

    Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia)
    Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia)

    While modern pharmaceuticals have historically relied on animal testing to ensure safety and efficacy — a requirement in the approval process of novel therapeutic agents for human use — Herbal Reality does not endorse nor support animal testing when determining the efficacy of time-tested natural herbal ingredients. Our stance is aligned with ethical frameworks that strive to reduce, refine, and replace animal experiments, emphasising the importance of welfare and continual pursuit of innovative, non-animal-based testing methods

    Modulatory effects of triphala and manjistha dietary supplementation on human gut microbiota: A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled pilot study

    This four week randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial investigated effects of triphala and manjistha (Rubia cordifolia) supplementation on gut microbiota composition in 31 healthy adults. Participants were randomised to receive 2,000 mg daily of either triphala, manjistha or placebo for 4 weeks. The primary outcome was changes in gut microbiota composition, assessed through faecal 16S rRNA testing.  

    Both herbal treatment groups showed a tendency to lower the Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio, increase Akkermansia muciniphila, and reduce Rikenellaceae (especially Alistipes), while no single taxon changed uniformly across all participants. Overall, the study demonstrates that these Ayurvedic herbs can modulate faecal microbial communities even though responses vary person to person (13).

    Unveiling the antimicrobial and antioxidant potential of natural products: Insights from molecular docking

    This in-vitro study explored five medicinal herbs (vala, manjistha, clove, sandalwood and cinnamon) in a polyherbal blend and found them to exhibit antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant activity relevant to antimicrobial resistance, with the alcoholic extract of the blend producing measurable bacterial growth inhibition and strong free-radical scavenging.

    Docking analyses identified 39 phytochemicals with high binding affinity to key microbial resistance targets including rubicoumaric and rubiofolic acids from Rubia cordifolia that bound ESBLs nearly as well as ceftazidime and beta-stigmesterol from Santalum album that outperformed fluconazole against NMT-1, suggesting that such polyherbal formulations may offer promising leads for combating drug-resistant pathogens (14).

    Compared with human clinical trials, animal research on Rubia cordifolia is fairly extensive, and several studies have tested its effects across inflammatory, dermatological, metabolic, and antimicrobial models.

    The underlying mechanisms exploration of Rubia cordifolia L. extract against rheumatoid arthritis

    Rubia cordifolia extract reduced joint swelling, protected cartilage, and lowered key inflammatory signals in an adjuvant-induced arthritis rat model. Serum and urine metabolomics showed shifts in glycerophospholipid and pyrimidine metabolism, and network pharmacology linked these shifts to six molecular targets involved in inflammation and cellular metabolism.

    Molecular docking suggested that core Rubia compounds such as alizarin, 6-hydroxyrubiadin, ruberythric acid, and munjistin can bind to these targets. Overall, the study shows that the extract acts through multi-pathway modulation to reduce inflammation and joint damage in rheumatoid arthritis (2).

    Evaluation of the wound healing activity of a crude extract of Rubia cordifolia L. (Indian madder) in mice

    The study evaluated the traditional wound-healing use of Rubia cordifolia by testing both an alcoholic extract and a hydrogel formulation on excision wounds in mice, applying the extract topically as a single dose and assessing healing through wound size measurements and histopathology; treated animals showed significantly faster wound contraction, smaller wound area, improved tissue regeneration, and clearer epithelialisation (p < 0.01), providing scientific support for the plant’s long-standing use in managing cuts, burns and skin injuries (15).

  • Historical use of manjistha

    Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia)
    Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia)

    The medicinal activity of manjistha is concentrated within the heart and the circulatory system where it will cool, cleanse and purify the blood. It is this action that has indicated the use of manjistha in all blood-based disorders and deficiencies. Manjistha will clear any congested heat and toxicity from the blood, relieving characteristically irritated, itching and inflamed skin conditions. The profound effect of manjistha on the blood supply also indicates it in menstrual disorders and chronic inflammatory conditions (3). 

    Manjistha will also effectively break down tissue accumulations that may be obstructing the blood flow, such as tumours and lumps. The cooling nature of manjistha on the blood has made it effective in reducing irritation and agitation of the nervous system on both an emotional and physical level (3,4).

    Manjistha’s affinity for cleaning, cooling and clearing the blood of all excess heat, inflammation and toxicity indicates it in itching, eczema, psoriasis, dermatitis, vitiligo, acne, acne rosacea and herpes. It also helps to relieve pruritus influenced by liver heat and aggravation. Manjistha is also indicated in scabies and athlete’s foot (6,7).

    Manjishta helps to relieve blood stagnation and control bleeding by clearing excess pitta and heat from the blood. It is therefore indicated in Crohn’s disease, dysentery and bleeding ulcers. It acts as a vulnerary and hastens the healing time of skin trauma. It is indicated where there are signs of a congested uterus, dysmenorrhoea, fixed pain, clots, amenorrhoea and endometriosis. Manjistha can also be applied to support menstrual health, particularly when imbalance is associated with blood stagnation or aggravated pitta (6,7).)

    Manjishta breaks accumulations that may be obstructing the blood flow, particularly those found in the bladder, liver and kidneys. Manjistha is specific for gradually dissolving kidney and bladder stones. Anthraquinones act as chelating agents helping to draw excess calcium from the system.

    Manjistha is naturally cooling and has a balancing effect on the emotions, and has traditionally been applied in cases of epilepsy, and has shown to have anticonvulsant activity in animal models, however epilepsy is a neurological condition and should  not be treated with herbal medicine alone (7,8).

  • Manjistha’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • Manjistha’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the description that herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel and affect the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment impacts health, according to each of their philosophies and frameworks. These assessments of individual herbs, though they often do align, can differ from one another due to cultural differences regarding perspectives on how herbs taste versus their physiological effects. Find out more about traditional energetics in our article An introduction to herbal energetics.

  • What can I use manjistha for?

    Manjistha acts primarily as a blood cleanser and purifier. It contains a class of constituents known as quinones; the quinone rubiadin demonstrates antioxidant activity that protects against damaging free radicals (1).

    Manjistha has also demonstrated the ability to increase the number of inflammatory mediators, reducing heat and congestion within the blood flow, impacting upon a wide range of chronic inflammatory disorders (2).

  • Did you know?

    The characteristic bright red colour of this plants root was traditionally seen as an indicator of this plant’s affinity for treating blood-based disorders and deficiencies (3).

  • Botanical description

    Manjistha is a prickly perennial climber and will often grow over other plants.

    The roots have a characteristically red colouring, and the leaves are an ovate shape with distinctive veins running along their length.

    The flowers are small and a white-green colouring.

    The manjistha fruits are globular and a deep purple-black (16).

  • Common names

    Indian madder

  • Habitat

    Manjistha is native to India, which can be found growing most predominantly in the lower regions of the Himalayas and the Western Ghats in Southern India. It can also be found growing in Japan, Indonesia and Sri Lanka in moist, tropical forests up to altitudes of 3500 metres (17).

  • How to grow manjistha

    Manjistha will grow from seed, but it’s slow, fussy, and behaves more like a woodland perennial than a typical garden herb. The essentials are fresh seed, warmth, consistent moisture and patience.

    • Use fresh seed; older seed loses viability quickly.
    • Soak seeds 12–24 hours to soften the coat.
    • Sow into loose, humus-rich, slightly acidic compost.
    • Cover lightly (about 3–5 mm) and keep at 20–24°C.
    • Maintain even moisture with good ventilation to prevent damping-off
    • Expect slow, erratic germination over 4–12 weeks
    • Pot on at the 3–4 true-leaf stage and provide a small support.
    • Plant out in partial shade once frost risk has passed
    • Slow growth expected in year one while roots establish.
    • More vigorous in year two, sending out long scrambling stems.
    • Roots are harvestable from year three onward for medicinal use (17,1,198).

  • Herbal preparation of manjistha

    • Kumkumadi oil: Traditional Ayurvedic oil for facial skin
    • Panchatikta Guggul ghee: Medicinal ghee for abscess and sinus treatment
    • Maha manjisthadi kashaya: Traditional manjistha decoction for skin disease and blood purification

  • Plant parts used

    Root

  • Dosage

    • Tincture: 3–12 ml/day of a 1:3 in 25% tincture
    • Dried powdered root: 0.5–10 g/day dried (6)

  • Constituents

    • Glucosides: Manjishtha, pur-puroxanthin, purpurin
    • Anthraquinones: Alizarin, purpurin, munjistin, rubiadin
    • Anthroquinone glycosides: Lucidin, alizarin, rubiadin
    • Naphthoquinones and naphthohydroquinones: Mollugin (rubimaillin), 2-hydroxymollugin, furomollugin, dihydromollugin, dehydro-α-lapachone
    • Triterpenes: Rubiprasin A, rubiprasin B, rubiarbonol D, oleanolic acid acetate
    • Phytosterols: β-Sitosterol, daucosterol
    • Coumarins: Scopoletin
    • Resin
    • Gum (7)

  • Manjistha recipe

    Herbal face mask

    This is a traditional Ayurvedic herbal mask for glowing skin.

    Ingredients

    • 15 g chickpea flour
    • Pinch of turmeric
    • 5 g each of powdered manjistha, neem, ground almond 
    • Rose water

    How to make a manjistha face mask

    • This can be made in a single batch, or in larger amounts for future applications. 
    • Mix dry ingredients together and add enough rose water to make a smooth paste for each application.
    • Use the fresh mask within a couple of hours. 
    • Apply to damp clean skin and leave to dry for 15–20 minutes, avoiding eye area. 
    • The remaining dry ingredients will keep for  2–4 months in a sealed jar. As and when required, just add a few drops of rose water, make a paste and apply.

Your Ayurvedic menstrual cycle

Your Ayurvedic menstrual cycle

  • Safety

    Avoid during pregnancy, breastfeeding, constipation. May turn urine red and cause nausea and vomiting (7). 

    Avoid in high doses as it can cause hallucinations (4).

  • Interactions

    Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia) has very few well-documented drug–herb interactions, but several clinically relevant cautions are consistently noted in the literature. Evidence is limited, so these are framed as potential interactions based on known pharmacology and reported warnings.

    • Drugs with strong metabolic pathways (CYP-mediated): Manjistha contains anthraquinones (e.g., alizarin) that may theoretically influence hepatic metabolism, so interactions with drugs heavily dependent on CYP450 pathways are possible, though not clinically confirmed (1,20).
    • Anticoagulants/antiplatelets: Manjistha’s traditional “blood-moving” actions raise a theoretical risk of additive effects with anticoagulants, though no clinical cases are documented (21).

  • Contraindications

    Caution with high vata dosha (6).

    Caution with chills, as the cooling effect may aggravate this (3).

  • Sustainability status of manjistha

    Manjistha, although widely distributed in Asia, is subject to sustainability concerns surrounding its wild populations. Regional assessments classified the plant as ‘vulnerable’ in multiple areas including Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra (22). Reasons behind this threat include the harvesting method which involves digging up the roots and rhizomes, thereby preventing the plant from effectively regenerating (23). Manjistha is listed as a FairWild certified ingredient, and can, therefore be sourced from reputable suppliers that support harvesting at sustainable levels and supporting fair working conditions (24).

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Manjistha is still primarily wild-harvested across India, Nepal, and parts of Southeast Asia, especially in the Himalayan foothills where it grows in forest margins and moist, humus-rich soils.

    Small-scale cultivation does exist, mainly in India through AYUSH-supported medicinal-plant programmes, but production remains limited because the plant is slow to mature, requires three years for harvestable roots, and is labour-intensive to process. This imbalance means most commercial supply continues to come from wild sources, raising concerns about overharvesting in some regions.

    Quality issues are also documented; roots may be adulterated with cheaper Rubia species or unrelated red-pigmented roots, and wild-collected material can show contamination with heavy metals, pesticide residues, or microbial load depending on collection and drying conditions. These risks make traceable, cultivated, or certified-wild sources preferable (25).

  • References

    1. Patel K, Patel DK. Phytochemical and pharmacological profile of Rubia cordifolia: a review. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2017;7(9):835-840.
    2. Zeng W, et al. The underlying mechanisms exploration of Rubia cordifolia L. extract against rheumatoid arthritis by integrating network pharmacology and metabolomics. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2023;17:439-457. https://doi.org/10.2147/DDDT.S388932
    3. Frawley D, Lad V. The Yoga of Herbs: An Ayurvedic Guide to Herbal Medicine. Motilal Banarsidass; 1994:178.
    4. Gogte VM. Ayurvedic Pharmacology and Therapeutic Uses of Medicinal Plants. 1982:467.
    5. Charak Samhita. Charak Samhita Online. Accessed October 10, 2026. https://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/index.php?title=Main_Page
    6. Pole S. Ayurvedic Medicine: The Principles of Traditional Practice. Churchill Livingstone; 2006:224-225.
    7. McIntyre A. Herbal Treatment of Children: Western and Ayurvedic Perspectives. Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann; 2005:122-123.
    8. Kasture VS, Deshmukh VK, Chopde CT. Anticonvulsant and behavioral actions of triterpene isolated from Rubia cordifolia Linn. Indian J Exp Biol. 2000;38(7):675-680. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11215310/
    9. McIntyre A, Boudin B. Dispensing with Tradition. 2012:227.
    10. Mishra B. Bhavaprakasha. Vol 1. Chavanprakash Yantra; 1944. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.406247
    11. Madanapala. Madanapala-Nighantu. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.405954
    12. Mills S, Bone K. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. Churchill Livingstone; 2000.
    13. Peterson CT, Pourang A, Dhaliwal S, et al. Modulatory effects of triphala and manjistha dietary supplementation on human gut microbiota: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study. J Altern Complement Med. 2020;26(11):1015-1024. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2020.0148
    14. Kesar A, Gatade G, Sarade R, Mane D, Arvindekar S. Unveiling the antimicrobial and antioxidant potential of natural products: insights from molecular docking. Nat Prod Res. Published online 2025:1-7. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2025.2554316
    15. Karodi R, Jadhav M, Rub R, Bafna A. Evaluation of the wound healing activity of a crude extract of Rubia cordifolia L. (Indian madder) in mice. Int J Appl Res Nat Prod. 2009;2(2):12-18.
    16. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Rubia cordifolia L. Plants of the World Online. Accessed October 10, 2026. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:765218-1/general-information
    17. Indian Institute of Science, Centre for Ecological Sciences. India Flora. Herb sheet, record 10204. Accessed October 10, 2026. https://indiaflora-ces.iisc.ac.in/herbsheet.php?cat=13&id=10204
    18. National Medicinal Plants Board. Rubia cordifolia (Manjistha): Cultivation and Agro-techniques. Ministry of AYUSH, Government of India; 2015.
    19. Kumar S, Singh A, Sharma R. Ecology and propagation of Rubia cordifolia in Himalayan forest margins. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2013;12(4):735-742.
    20. Zhang X, Li Y, Chen X. Metabolism and pharmacokinetics of anthraquinones: advances and perspectives. Curr Drug Metab. 2014;15(3):213-226.
    21. Wen M, Chen Q, Chen W, Yang J, Zhou X, Zhang C, Wu A, Lai J, Chen J, Mei Q, et al. A comprehensive review of Rubia cordifolia L.: traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, and clinical applications. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:965390. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.965390
    22. Gowthami R, Sharma N, Pandey R, Agrawal A. Status and consolidated list of threatened medicinal plants of India. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2021;68(6):2235-2263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-021-01199-0
    23. SV Botanica. Sourcing manjistha from India: a root harvest and what it costs the plant. SV Botanica. Published August 19, 2026. Accessed October 10, 2026. https://www.svbotanica.com/insights/manjistha-sourcing-sustainability-india
    24. FairWild Foundation. Indian madder. FairWild Foundation. Published December 27, 2018. Accessed October 10, 2026. https://www.fairwild.org/ingredients/indian-madder
    25. Ved D, Goraya GS. Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India. National Medicinal Plants Board/FRLHT; 2008.

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Understanding Ayurveda: A guide to the doshas

Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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