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We share traditional, scientific and practical insights written by experienced herbalists and health experts from the world of herbal medicine and natural health

  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Avoid in hypoglycaemia, ulcerative colitis, pregnancy and high vata. Can cause diarrhoea and flatulence in high doses.

    Sustainability

    Critically endangered in the wild. Listed on CITES Appendix 2 and National Red Lists.

    Potential replacement(s): Andrographis, Barberry

    Key constituents

    Iridoid Glycosides:

    • Picroside I
    • Picroside II
    • Picroside III
    • Kutkoside

    Quality

    Country of origin: India
    Wild harvested
    Commonly adulterated with other species

    Key actions

    Hepatoprotective
    Anti-inflammatory
    Laxative
    Bitter tonic

    Key indications

    Liver support
    Cardiovascular
    Immunity
    Digestion

    Key energetics summary

    Bitter / Pungent
    Cooling
    Dry
    Light

    See below for discipline-specific energetics

    Preperation and dosage

    Plant part: root
    500 mg-2 g/per day
    3–12 ml tincture per day

  • How does it feel?

    The smell of kutki is earthy and medicinal. Kutki is characteristically extremely bitter, with a pungent and acrid undertone which lingers on the tongue long after ingestion. This flavour is sometimes referred to as campherous or woody.

    Kutki (Picrorrhiza kurroa)
    Kutki (Picrorrhiza kurroa)
    Kutki (Picrorrhiza kurroa)

    The taste of kutki

    The below qualities are derived from organoleptic assessment.

  • Into the heart of kutki

    Kutki (Picrorrhiza kurroa)
    Kutki (Picrorhiza kurroa)

    Kutki is powerfully bitter and as such has cooling and drying effects. These energetics help to reduce heat, inflammation and metabolic congestion. The drying effect helps to resolve dampness and inflammatory accumulation, indicating it in liver congestion, inflammatory skin disorders, sluggish digestion and metabolic toxicity (2).

    Kutki can aggravate vata if used in excess and does not suit individuals who are depleted, cold or constitutionally dry (2). As a power purifier, kutki clears overloaded metabolic pathways with a special affinity for the liver. It can be seen to restore function by clearing congestion and removing excess (2). 

    Constituents found in kutki have been found to protect the liver from drug-induced injury, providing strong hepato-protective qualities. Kutki also decreases levels of bilirubin, improving recovery rates from conditions such as jaundice. (3). 

    Kutki is a strong immunomodulator agent that modulates antibody and macrophage activity and also the non-specific immune response. It is also a strong antibacterial. In the respiratory system, kutki has demonstrated the ability to reduce the severity and longevity of asthmatic attacks and this has been attributed to compounds such as androsin and apocynin (4).

    The constituent’s kutkin, picroside and kutkoside have demonstrated strong anti-inflammatory activity, particularly within the musculoskeletal system (5).  Kutki also clears heat from the blood and can benefit the heart; especially palpitations.

  • What practitioners say

    Digestive systemDigestive system

    At a low dose (<1g per day), kutki can increase the digestive fire (known as agni In Ayurveda) and peristalsis. Large doses will purge the bowel and are traditionally used in Ayurvedic panchakarma therapy. Useful in dysentery with bleeding, bloating, mucous and parasites. It specifically scrapes toxic accumulations from the intestines and blood. This scraping action is also used to clear fat from the body and to stimulate the digestive fire in fat tissue (medas-dhatu) so that it can metabolise the earth and water elements effectively.

    Kutki can be combined with herbs such as rhubarb root (Rheum officinale / R. palmatum), senna (Senna alexandrina), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), ginger (Zingiber officinale) and cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)  to support with constipation or diarrhoea.

    Kutki also protects the liver against damage from the hepatitis C virus (8). It increases the flow of bile and reduces bilious pitta dosha related symptoms such as a sour or bitter taste in the mouth, acidity and nausea. It can be used in all forms of liver damage, cirrhosis and inflammation of the liver, combined with herbs such as bhumiamalaki (Phyllanthus amarus), amla (Phyllanthus emblica), guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia) and  manjishta (Rubia cordifolia). It is advised to use kutki with warming aromatic herbs to prevent any intestinal griping (9).

    Cardiovascular system

    As kutki clears heat from pitta dosha and the blood it can also benefit the heart; especially for palpitations caused by pitta irritating blood tissue. Also used In congestive heart failure, heart disease, high cholesterol and atherosclerosis due to being known as a heart tonic (hrdaya) In Ayurveda (10).

    When given in congestive heart failure it causes watery diarrhoea which reduces the circulatory hydrostatic pressure on the heart. It is also traditionally given with an equal quantity of liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) and sugar in heart disease (7). 

    Immune system

    Its anti-inflammatory effect on plasma and lymph (rasa dhatu) is used for immune reactions and hypersensitivity to environmental allergens including asthma, rhinitis, eczema with signs of heat and high pitta and kapha doshas (10). It can be combined with long pepper (Piper longum), ephedra (Ephedra sinica) and liquorice for allergic reactions presenting in the lungs and skin.

    It is also useful in autoimmune conditions as an immunomodulant with inflammations of a pitta-kapha dosha variety: arthritis, psoriasis, acute and chronic infections (8). . Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) and liquorice combine well with kutki in compromised immunity and low ojas (inherent immune function).

    Respiratory system

    Useful in asthma, rhinitis, coughs, chest infections, congestion, colds and flu due to its kasasvahara property (relieves coughing and breathing problems) and having an affinity for pranavaha srotas (respiratory tract). It is also used in bronchial asthma for its expectorant properties (10). A formula of four herbs including kutki has also been shown to be helping In the treatment of mild to moderate Covid-19 infection (11). 

    Skin health

    It is used to treatskin problems such as eczema, itching and psoriasis due to its kusthagna (alleviates skin diseases) and rakta shodhana (purifies the blood) properties (10).

    Endocrine

    Kutki acts as a useful diuretic and has hypoglycaemic effects, indicating in the treatment of diabetes (7). 

  • Kutki research

    Kutki (Picrorrhiza kurroa)
    Kutki (Picrorrhiza kurroa)

    While modern pharmaceuticals have historically relied on animal testing to ensure safety and efficacy — a requirement in the approval process of novel therapeutic agents for human use — Herbal Reality does not endorse nor support animal testing when determining the efficacy of time-tested natural herbal ingredients.

    Our stance is aligned with ethical frameworks that strive to reduce, refine, and replace animal experiments, emphasising the importance of welfare and continual pursuit of innovative, non-animal-based testing methods

    Picrorhiza kurroa: Traditional uses, phytopharmacology, and translational potential in therapy of fatty liver disease

    The review explored how traditional Ayurvedic use of Picrorhiza kurroa is being transformed into a standardised, clinically validated phytopharmaceutical for treating fatty liver disease. Early insights from classical Ayurvedic treatments for hepatitis, supported by well-designed clinical studies, have provided strong evidence of kutki’s liver-protective effects. Advances in identifying and isolating its active phytochemicals such as iridoid glycosides and picroside have further strengthened laboratory research on its therapeutic potential.

    Experimental, clinical, and in vitro studies indicate that kutki extracts can improve liver function, accelerate recovery in viral hepatitis, and reduce lipid accumulation and oxidative stress in models of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Mechanistic studies suggest these effects occur through anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-fibrotic and metabolic regulatory actions, including reduced fatty acid uptake and improved mitochondrial function in liver cells. Traditional dosing ranges from 300–500 mg two to three times daily, with larger doses used as a laxative.

    These findings are motivating clinicians to revisit traditional practices for new clues and to explore kutki’s potential benefits beyond liver health (6).

    AYUSH 64 found useful in the treatment of mild to moderate COVID-19 infection

    A randomised clinical study has demonstrated the safety and efficacy of AYUSH 64 (containing kutki) in mild-moderate Covid-19. AYUSH 64 is a multi herbal formulation which has been shown to be useful in the treatment of asymptomatic, mild and moderate Covid-19 infection as an adjunct to standard care. AYUSH 64 is comprised of four herbs: Alstonia scholaris (aqueous bark extract), Picrorhiza kurroa (aqueous rhizome extract), Swertia chirata (aqueous extract of whole plant) and Caesalpinia crista (fine-powdered seed pulp).

    Participants receiving AYUSH-64 took two 500 mg tablets twice daily for 12 weeks and were monitored until clinical recovery, defined by symptom resolution, normal oxygen saturation, and negative RT-PCR. Results showed that the AYUSH-64 group recovered significantly faster, with a mean recovery time of 6.45 days compared with 8.26 days in standard care group, and 70% recovered within the first week. Participants also showed improvements in physical health, fatigue, and quality of life measures

    It is also recommended in National Clinical Management Protocol based on Ayurveda and Yoga (11). 

    Picrorhiza kurroa (Kutaki) as a hepatoprotective agent—experimental and clinical studies (4)

    Picrorhiza kurroa (Pk) was evaluated for hepatoprotective effects in both experimental and clinical settings. Active principles (picroside I and II) were standardized with capsules containing 2.72–2.88 mg of picroside I and 5.50–6.00 mg of picroside II. In rats with galactosamine-induced liver injury, Pk at 200 mg/kg significantly reduced liver lipid content and enzymes.

    A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in patients with acute viral hepatitis (HBsAg negative) showed that Pk root powder (375 mg three times daily for two weeks) significantly improved bilirubin and other markers compared to a placebo. Recovery time for bilirubin normalisation was reduced from 75.9 days (placebo) to 27.44 days (Pk group), supporting its hepatoprotective efficacy and the importance of standardisation based on picroside content (5).

    Ayurveda management of jaundice: A case study

    A 10-year-old girl presented with symptoms of jaundice (loss of appetite, weakness, abdominal pain, hard stools, and yellow discoloration of the skin, sclera, mucosa, urine, and stool) with blood tests confirming elevated bilirubin and liver enzymes. In Ayurveda, her condition corresponded to Koshthashrita Kamala, and treatment included Liv 52 DS and Nirocil twice daily, along with mridu virechana (mild purgation) for four weeks using Avipatikar Churna and Kutki Churna (powdered herbs).

    This combined regimen led to marked improvement including increases in appetite and increased  stool and urine normalised, and follow-up blood tests returned to reference ranges, suggesting the therapy was effective for managing symptoms of jaundice (2).

    Immunostimulatory activity of Picrorhiza kurroa leaf extract

    A 50% ethanolic leaf extract of Picrorhiza kurroa was shown to enhance multiple aspects of immune function in animal studies. It boosted both cell-mediated and humoral immunity, increased phagocytic activity, and produced dose-dependent early and delayed hypersensitivity responses in mice, rats, and guinea pigs. Although PK leaf extract itself was not mitogenic, it significantly increased the responsiveness of mouse splenocytes to standard T-cell and B-cell mitogens, indicating a broad immunostimulatory effect (12).

    In-vitro and in-vivo evaluation of antiasthmatic activity of picrorhiza kurroa plant

    An ethanolic root extract of Picrorhiza kurroa was tested for antiasthmatic effects in guinea pigs using both in-vivo and in-vitro models. In animals, the extract protected against histamine-induced bronchoconstriction, achieving 52.16% protection which is close to the standard drug salbutamol (65.83%).

    In isolated guinea pig ileum, the extract relaxed muscle contractions triggered by both histamine and acetylcholine, especially at 100 mg/ml. These findings suggest that the extract’s antiasthmatic activity is linked to its saponins and flavonoids, which contribute to its bronchodilatory and muscle-relaxant effects (13).

  • Historical use of kutki

    Kutki (Picrorrhiza kurroa)
    Kutki (Picrorrhiza kurroa)

    Kutki has been used for many centuries in various medicinal cultures across India, Greece and Arabia. Kutki has traditionally been used as a hepatoprotective, antiasthmatic, immunomodulator and anti-inflammatory. It has an incredibly bitter taste, which is indicative of its activity in the liver.

    Low dose (less than 1g/day) can increase digestive metabolism and peristalsis. Large doses will purge the bowel. It scrapes toxic accumulations from the intestines and blood. This scraping action is also used to clear fat from the body (2).

    Kutki finds mention in all the three major ancient treatises of Ayurveda (Charak-samhita, Sushrut-samhita and Ashtang-hrudaya. Moreover, uninterrupted, continued tradition of clinical use of kutki is evident by its mention in majority of the Nighantus compiled through medieval period like Bhavprakash Nighantu. It is revered for its detoxifying, hepatoprotective and immunomodulatory properties (6).  It is also known for balancing pitta and kapha doshas.

    It also has a long history of use In helping manage fevers, a subject which receives much attention In the classical Ayurvedic texts. Its cooling effect helps to reduce higher temperatures in fevers (7). 

    It is included in various traditional Ayurvedic formulations such as:

    • Tikta ghrita (bitter ghee): Combines kutki with ghee and  other bitter herbs and to balance the doshas and improve liver function, digestive health and detoxification. Its bitter taste also stimulates digestion.
    • Kalmeghasava: This tonic contains kutki and is used to support liver function, jaundice, hepatitis, and digestive disturbances.
    • Triphala ghrita: A combination of three along with kutki  used for its digestive and rejuvenative properties. 
    • Maha Yogaraj Guggulu: Includes kutki and other herbs combined with guggulu (Commiphora mukul) to support joint health, arthritis, and promote detoxification (7). 

  • Kutki’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • Kutki’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the description that herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel and affect the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment impacts health, according to each of their philosophies and frameworks. These assessments of individual herbs, though they often do align, can differ from one another due to cultural differences regarding perspectives on how herbs taste versus their physiological effects. Find out more about traditional energetics in our article An introduction to herbal energetics.

    • Western energetics

      Western energetics here are informed by The Energetics of Western Herbs by Peter Holmes, as well as traditional materia medica from Culpeper and Dioscorides.

  • What can I use kutki for?

    Kutki (Picrorrhiza kurroa)
    Kutki (Picrorrhiza kurroa)

    Kutki is most widely recognised for its protective and regenerative effects upon the liver, protecting against long-term damage and bacterial infection that can be influenced by chronic drug consumption or abuse. Kutki also improves circulation within the liver, ensuring that it is functioning efficiently, supporting detoxification. Its stimulating effect upon the liver means that kutki also stimulates digestive metabolism and can be quite purging and clearing for the bowels, particularly where there is chronic congestion or toxicity.

    Kutki also protects the liver against damage from the hepatitis virus (1). It increases the flow of bile and reduces such bilious symptoms such as sour or bitter tastes in the mouth, acidity and nausea. It is used in all forms of liver damage, cirrhosis and inflammation of the liver.

    Its profound effect upon the immune system, the allergic response and strong anti-inflammatory activities, make kutki an excellent choice for those with autoimmune based conditions and hypersensitivities such as rheumatoid arthritis, chronic asthma and Crohn’s disease.

    Kutki’s anti-inflammatory effect is used for immune reactions and hypersensitivity to environmental allergens including asthma, rhinitis and eczema with signs of heat. It is also used in bronchial asthma for its expectorant properties. It is indicated in autoimmune conditions as an immunomodulator in inflammation arthritis, psoriasis, acute and chronic infections (2). 

  • Did you know?

    Kutki was once known as Dhanwantarigrasta ‘the plant that was administered by Dhanwantari’. Dhanwantari is one of the fathers of Ayurveda and often referred to as the ‘God of medicine’ (6).

  • Botanical description

    Kutki is a perennial herb confined to the alpine Himalayas, growing at altitudes of between 2500 and 3600 metres.

    It is a small, woody herb with a curved and irregular-looking root.

    The leaves appear to have serrated edges and grow to between 5–10 cm in length.

    The flowers are very small, oblong and displayed in spikes with a dark violet colouring (14). 

  • Common names

    • Yellow gentian
    • Picroliv
    • Katuka
    • Katuki
    • Kurri
    • Kuru
    • Hellbore
    • Katuko
    • Picrorhiza
    • Katukarogani
    • Hu Huang Lian
    • Kadu
    • Kutka

  • Habitat

    Kutki thrives in high altitudes and is native to the Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim at the height of two to four thousand metres (14).

  • How to grow kutki

    Due to kutki’s critically endangered status, there has been much focus on efforts to cultivate it. However, due to its narrow ecological range, it is not yet clear how well it can thrive beyond its Himalayan growing environment, making in-situ conservation the safest option. Raising locals’ awareness about the value and uses of the plant as well as restricting overexploitation of species from their natural habitats are crucial to maintain the important medicinal flora (15,16). 

    Governments and NGOs in Himachal and Uttarakhand promote cultivation projects to alleviate pressure on wild populations. Encouragingly kutki has been successfully grown ex situ below 3,000 m in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and other Western Himalayan areas.

    Yields of roots, rhizomes and leaves, along with picroside levels, match wild stocks (15). Kutki grows well in cool and moist climates where a sandy loam soil is best suited for its cultivation. It mainly grows in rich organic carbon and porous humus texture with covering of litter to maintain the desired moisture level. A canopy shade helps to maintain the moisture requirements and also encourages maximum growth and thickness of roots, and overall productivity in the natural habitats and ex-situ cultivation (17).

  • Herbal preparation of kutki

    • Powdered root
    • Medicated ghee
    • Asava (traditional fermentation)
    • Kashaya (decoction)
    • Herbal oil

  • Plant parts used

    Root / rhizome

  • Dosage

    Although kutki is considered a detoxifying agent. In Ayurveda (vishapaha), it has been reported to cause toxicity if not used in an appropriate dose for the correct indication (6). 

    • Tincture (ratio 1:3 | 25%):  3–12 ml/day of a 1:3 in 25% tincture (10)
    • Other preparations: 500 mg–2 g/day dried root (10)
    • For laxative purpose: 2 gms to 4 gms dried powdered root as a single dose (7)

  • Constituents

    • Iridoid glycosides: Picroside I–IV, Kutkoside
    • Phenolics: Phenol glycosides, 4‑hydroxy‑3‑methoxy acetophenone
    • Cucurbitacins: Cucurbitacin glycosides
    • Other glycosides: Veronicoside, Pikuroside
    • Miscellaneous: Apocynin (18)

  • Kutki recipe

    Kutki and honey paste

    For upper respiratory infections in children

    Ingredients

    • 250–500 mg kutki powder
    • 1 tsp honey

    How to make kutki paste

    Mix into a paste and let the child lick 4–5 times daily.

Ayurveda and immunity: Thriving the Ayurvedic way

Ayurveda and immunity: Thriving the Ayurvedic way

  • Safety

    Avoid in hypoglycaemia, ulcerative colitis, pregnancy, and high vata dosha. Can cause diarrhoea and flatulence in high doses. However, kutki is not suitable during pregnancy or breastfeeding,though it is traditionally used in Ayurveda to purify breast milk at lower doses (10,19).

    Use with caution with a weak digestive system. Some authorities mention concern about its immune-stimulating properties contradicting It in autoimmune diseases, although this is not reflected in traditional use (9).

  • Interactions

    Theoretically, kutki can interact with antidiabetic medication and should be avoided in conjunction with immunosuppressants due to its immunostimulating activity (8,20). 

  • Contraindications

    Avoid in hypoglycaemia, ulcerative colitis, and high vata dosha (10).

    Avoid in autoimmune disorders as kutki may stimulate immune activity, potentially worsening these conditions (1,10,20).

  • Sustainability status of kutki

    Picrorhiza kurroa is an endangered plant species, presently CITES Appendix 2 listed and suppliers must have a certificate to prove source of cultivation (21).

    Uncontrolled harvesting, destruction of natural habitats, slow growth rates, and lack of awareness about proper cultivation and plant removal have pushed kutki toward an endangered status.  For example, kutki is uprooted entirely from high-altitude Himalayan regions which contributes heavily to its endangered status and it is now critically endangered in the wild. It is currently listed on CITES Appendix 2 and the IUCN redlist (22,23).  (Read more in our sustainability guide.

    Potential replacement(s): Andrographis (Andrographis paniculata), Barberry (Berberis vulgaris)

    Various strategies for conserving the species and enhancing the production of bioactive compounds from Picrorhiza kurroa have been explored (24).

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Because kutki is endangered, its quality is often compromised by unsustainable wild harvesting and an unregulated supply chain. Scarcity drives substitution with cheaper species such as Gentiana kurroo and leads to adulteration, reducing therapeutic efficacy. Wild-sourced material also shows high variability in active compounds like picrosides, making standardisation difficult.

    Additionally, improper collection and processing increase risks of contamination from soil, microbes, or pollutants. Limited traceability, whether the plant is wild-harvested or cultivated, further complicates quality assurance, highlighting the need for strict authentication, chemical profiling, and contaminant testing to ensure purity and sustainability. By integrating cultivation, stringent phytochemical and anatomical authentication, molecular verification, and contaminant monitoring, manufacturers can ensure purity, quality, and environmental sustainability of kutki products (25).

  • References

    1. Frawley D, Lad V. The Yoga of Herbs : An Ayurvedic Guide to Herbal Medicine. Motilal Banarsidass; 2016.
    2. Sinha N, Ojha N. Ayurveda management of jaundice: A case study. Journal of research in ayurvedic sciences/Journal of Research in Ayurvedic Sciences. 2023;7(3):166-166. https://doi.org/10.4103/jras.jras_174_22 
    3. Dorsch W, Stuppner H, Wagner H, Gropp M, Demoulin S, Ring J. Antiasthmatic effects of Picrorhiza kurroa: androsin prevents allergen- and PAF-induced bronchial obstruction in guinea pigs. International archives of allergy and applied immunology. 1991;95(2-3):128-133. https://doi.org/10.1159/000235416 
    4. Almeleebia TM, Alsayari A, Wahab S. Pharmacological and Clinical Efficacy of Picrorhiza kurroa and Its Secondary Metabolites: A Comprehensive Review. Molecules. 2022;27(23):8316-8316. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27238316 
    5. Vaidya AB, Antarkar DS, Doshi JC, et al. Picrorhiza kurroa (Kutaki) Royle ex Benth as a hepatoprotective agent–experimental & clinical studies. Journal of postgraduate medicine. 1996;42(4):105-108. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9715310/ 
    6. Raut A, Dhami-Shah H, Phadke A, et al. Picrorhiza kurroa, Royle ex Benth:Traditional uses, phytopharmacology, and translational potential in therapy of fatty liver disease. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine. Published online June 2022:100558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaim.2022.100558 
    7. Vishṇū Mahādeva Gogaṭe. Ayurvedic Pharmacology & Therapeutic Uses of Medicinal Plants : Dravyagunavignyan. Chaukhambha Publications; 2012.
    8. Bone K. Clinical Applications of Ayurvedic and Chinese Herbs : Monographs for the Western Herbal Practitioner. Phytotherapy Press; 1996.
    9. Pole S. Ayurvedic Medicine : The Principles of Traditional Practice. Singing Dragon; 2013.
    10. McIntyre A, Boudin M. Dispensing with Tradition.; 2012.
    11. Chopra A, Tillu G, Choudhary KR, et al. Co-administration of AYUSH 64 as an adjunct to standard of care in mild and moderate COVID-19: A randomized, controlled, multicentric clinical trial. PLOS ONE. 2023;18(3):e0282688-e0282688. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282688 
    12. Sharma ML, Rao CS, Duda PL. Immunostimulatory activity of Picrorhiza kurroa leaf extract. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1994;41(3):185-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741(94)90031-0 
    13. Varshney B, Singh DrS, Singh DrA. Estimation of Phytoconstituents of Picrorhiza kurroa rhizome by phytochemical screening, FTIR and GC-MS and antimicrobial analysis. Journal of Applied Bioanalysis. 2025;11(6). https://doi.org/10.53555/jab.v11i6.791 
    14. Rao S, Ramakrishna A. Indian Medicinal Plants and Therapeutic Uses. CRC Press; 2025.
    15. Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2013;9(1):1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-1 
    16. Chandra PK, Rakesh B. Productivity and picroside contents of Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. cultivated at multi-locations in Uttarakhand, India. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research. 2024;18(2):14-21. https://doi.org/10.5897/jmpr2023.7294 
    17. MS R. Cultivation, Collection and Conservation of Kutki (Picrorhiza Kurroa Royle Ex Benth.). Journal of Natural & Ayurvedic Medicine. 2022;6(4):1-5. https://doi.org/10.23880/jonam-16000363 
    18. Pengelly A. The Constituents of Medicinal Plants. Cab International; 2021.
    19. Nadkarni KM, Nadkarni AK. Dr. K.M. Nadkarni’s Indian Materia Medica. Vol 2. Bombay Popular Prakashan; 1954.
    20. TRC Healthcare. NatMed Pro – Picrorhiza. Therapeuticresearch.com. Published 2026. Accessed March 12, 2026. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/Data/ProMonographs/Picrorhiza#drug-interactions 
    21. CITES. Implementation of the CITES Appendix II listing of jatamansi Nardostachys grandiflora and kutki Picrorhiza kurrooa | CITES. Cites.org. Published 2026. Accessed March 12, 2026. https://cites.org/eng/node/84910 
    22. CITES. CITES CoP19 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants – TRAFFIC – The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network. Traffic.org. Published 2022. Accessed March 12, 2026. https://www.traffic.org/about-us/cites/cites-cop19/cites-cop19-medicinal-and-aromatic-plants/ 
    23. Chuahan H. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Picrorhiza kurroa. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Published June 2021. Accessed October 12, 2025. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/88304131/88304135 
    24. Mehta S, Sharma AK, Singh RK. Advances in Ethnobotany, Synthetic Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Endangered Herb Picrorhiza kurroa (Kutki): A comprehensive review (2010-2020). Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry. 2021;21. https://doi.org/10.2174/1389557521666210401090028 
    25. Tewari D. Microscopical and Preliminary Physicochemical Studies of Two Important Endangered Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants Kutki and Trayamana to establish their Identity. Journal of Drug Research in Ayurvedic Sciences. 2017;2(1):18-22. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10059-0003 

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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