A voice for
herbal medicine

We share traditional, scientific and practical insights written by experienced herbalists and health experts from the world of herbal medicine and natural health

  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Some cases of mild side effects have been reported at >5 g daily doses — including gastrointestinal upset, headaches or restlessness

    Sustainability

    Status: Critically endangered

    Key constituents

    Nucleosides: Cordycepin and adenosine
    Polysaccharides: β-glucans

    Quality

    Country of origin: Tibetan Plateau: China, Nepal, Bhutan, India. O. sinensis wild; C. militaris cultivated. Risk of species substitution; lead, arsenic contamination

    Key actions

    Immunomodulant
    Anti-inflammatory
    Bronchiodilator
    Antioxidant

    Key indications

    Immune dysfunction
    Male infertility
    Fatiuge
    Asthma

    Key energetics summary

    Warm
    Moist
    Sweet

    See below for discipline-specific energetics

    Preperation and dosage

    Fruiting body, mycelium
    2–6 g daily
    Tincture ((1:4, 25%1:5): 2–12ml

  • How does it feel?

    The tincture of cordyceps is initially sweet and mildly acrid in taste. Energetically, this medicine is warm and moist in nature. The dried or powdered mushroom is similar in taste with more earthy and chocolate undertones.

    Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis)
    Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis)
    Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis)

    The taste of cordyceps

    The below qualities are derived from organoleptic assessment.

  • Into the heart of cordyceps

    Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis)
    Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis)

    A deeply nourishing and restorative mushroom, cordyceps acts to foster strength rather than stimulate. This can be applied to a number of situations including prolonged stress, illness, respiratory weakness, ageing or convalescence (1). 

    Energetically, cordyceps is considered gently warming, moist and sweet. The sweet quality is often associated with nourishment, replenishment and restoration, whilst the warming quality supports activity and energy. Cordyceps can, therefore, be applied to instances of coldness, weakness and exhaustion, offering gentle support rather than being overly stimulating (1,3).  

    In traditional Chinese medicine, (TCM) cordyceps, known as dong chong xia cao, enters   the Lung and Kidney channels, tonifying Kidney yang and jing and nourishing the Lungs (1,5).  Energetically, the Lung governs use of breath or qi, whilst the Kidneys represent deeper constitutional reserves, therefore cordyceps can be seen as nourishing both what is taken in, as well as what is stored in the body (1,5). Cordyceps is a medicine to be sought for chronic Lung weakness, arising from either qi or yin deficiency.

  • What practitioners say

    Cardiovascular systemCardiovascular system 

    Cordyceps extracts show antioxidant activity, mainly attributed to their polysaccharide and phenolic content, and have been shown to protect the heart muscle and surrounding tissue from ischemia and reperfusion (2). C. militaris is also rich in the active constituent cordycepin, which may contribute to these effects.

    Traditional indications also note its impact on lowering blood pressure and heart rate, whilst reducing total cholesterol, triglycerides and LDLs, indicating it for patients with hyperlipidaemia and atherosclerosis (1). In China, cordyceps is an approved application to reduce cardiac arrhythmias, suggested to result from the adenosine content (1,2). 

    Endocrine system

    Cordyceps is classified as a restorative tonic indicated in convalescence and periods of prolonged stress (2). Recent studies suggest this is via adrenocortical steroidogenesis and modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis (11). 

    The polysaccharides have shown to increase insulin sensitivity and lower fasting blood glucose levels (3). Cordyceps acts to increase the secretion of glucose regulating enzymes from the liver, helping to conserve glycogen stores and prevent blood glucose spikes (2). These mechanisms also indicate cordyceps in the treatment of type 1 and 2 diabetes (2).  

    In TCM, the endocrine system corresponds to the Kidneys, which are known to store jing (vital essence) and are responsible for growth, maturation and reproduction. In this regard, cordyceps can be applied to support systemic signs of weakness including fatigue, memory loss, musculoskeletal aches and age related decline (1,5). 

    Immune system 

    Cordyceps acts as a powerful immunomodulator, helping to regulate inflammatory pathways and immune cell defence. The beta-glucans bind to surface receptors on key immune cells including macrophages, dendritic cells and natural killer (NK) cells, which in turn activates both innate and adaptive immune responses (3,4). Coupled with its anti-inflammatory effects, it helps to support immune resilience whilst moderating elevated inflammatory signalling (12). Its effect on immune cells means it can be applied to help reduce the severity of viral infections and it has been shown to exhibit antiviral properties against a variety of common viruses including Covid-19, dengue virus, enterovirus, hepatitis C and Epstein-Barr virus (13,14). 

    Nervous system 

    Cordyceps is considered a restorative tonic, helping to improve vitality, recovery from illness and fatigue (2). The constituents — cordycepin, adenosine and the polysaccharides — exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic  actions, helping to support nervous system dysfunction that is associated with oxidative stress or inflammation (15). Cordyceps can also be applied to ameliorate low mood, depression and anxiety, with some evidence showing its ability to support sleep and insomnia, despite how its action in improving energy metabolism may seem counterintuitive to this (16). 

    Reproductive system

    One of the key associations of cordyceps is the support for sexual vitality and fertility with a predominant focus on male reproductive health. Cordyceps (specifically cordycepin) has been shown to stimulate testosterone production in Leydig cells by interacting with the adenosine receptors (17). This extends to its impact on increasing sperm quality and production and has been a core indication within TCM (1). Further to this, in TCM cordyceps is applied for impotence, premature ejaculation, spermatorrhoea and nocturnal emission (1). 

    As cordyceps is considered to tonify Kidney yang and increase jing it can be applied to cases where sexual dysfunction and low libido stems from fatigue, weakness and slow convalescence (1). 

    Respiratory system 

    There is a strong tradition of cordyceps being applied to support the respiratory system within TCM and it is considered a Lung as well as Kidney tonic (1).  It is indicated in the treatment of chronic respiratory conditions including chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD), asthma, breathlessness and respiratory weakness (1). As an anti-inflammatory and bronchodilator, corydyceps relaxes bronchial smooth muscle and reduces airway inflammation (1). 

    Urinary system

    As previously mentioned, cordyceps is regarded as a Kidney tonic within TCM, helping to relieve constitutional weakness (1). Recent research suggests it can also be applied to help with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and diabetic kidney disease (DKD) as it offers nephroprotective and increased glomerular filtration rate (18,19). 

  • Cordyceps research

    Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis)
    Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis)

    Efficacy and safety of Cordyceps sinensis (Hirsutella sinensis, Cs-C-Q80) in chronic bronchitis

    In this multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, the authors investigated the efficacy and safety of Cordyceps sinensis (fermented Hirsutella sinensis, Cs-C-Q80; Bailing capsule) for reducing acute exacerbations in people with chronic bronchitis. The study randomised 240 adults aged 18–75 years from eight hospitals in China were diagnosed with chronic bronchitis. Participants received either the Bailing capsule at a dose of 2 g orally three times daily (6 g/day) or placebo for 48 weeks, followed by a further 48-week treatment-free follow-up.

    The primary outcome was frequency of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis and secondary outcomes included timing, duration and severity of exacerbations as well as cough, expectoration and wheezing, pulmonary function, immune markers and safety. Those in the cordyceps showed a substantial and statistically significant reduction in exacerbations during treatment (P<0.001) and this continued into the follow up period (P=0.026). Symptom severity overall was also significantly lower after treatment (P=0.035).

    Adverse effects were comparable between groups (29.6% vs 30.4%), suggesting the preparation was generally well tolerated. Overall, the trial provides relatively strong clinical evidence that this cultured cordyceps preparation may reduce the frequency of chronic-bronchitis exacerbations and improve expectoration and wheezing (20). 

    Modulation of the cognition-sleep nexus in subjective cognitive decline: A 12 week, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of a standardised Cordyceps militaris extract

    A 12-week, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial investigated whether a standardised Cordyceps militaris (CM) extract could improve cognitive performance and sleep in adults experiencing subjective cognitive decline (SCD). The study included 120 adults aged 45–65 years with SCD in Palembang, Indonesia, who were randomised to receive either 300 mg/day of a standardised CM mycelial extract containing 3% cordycepin or placebo for 12 weeks. The primary outcome was change in cognitive function measured using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment-Indonesian (MoCA-INA).

    Compared with placebo, CM produced a significantly greater improvement in MoCA-INA scores ( P<0.001). Secondary outcomes showed significant improvements in episodic memory, assessed by RAVLT delayed recall (P<0.001); sleep with improvements noted on the  Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (P<0.001), while objectively measured sleep efficiency increased by 5.8 percentage points ( P<0.001). Additional results showed improvements in processing speed and REM sleep, alongside increased serum brain derived neurofactor (BDNF).

    The results suggest that 12 weeks of standardised C. militaris supplementation improves cognitive function, memory and sleep in middle-aged adults with SCD, with additional improvements in biomarkers related to neuroplasticity and inflammation (21).

    A randomised controlled clinical trial examining the effects of Cordyceps militaris beverage on the immune response in healthy adults

    This randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial examined the effects of a fermented Cordyceps militaris mycelial beverage on immune modulation. The study included 40 healthy adults aged 25–60 years, consisting of 20 men and 20 women, with participants within each sex randomised equally between treatment and placebo groups. Participants consumed 75 ml/day of the fermented C. militaris beverage, providing at least 2.85 mg cordycepin per daily serving, or a date palm juice placebo for eight weeks.

    Immune outcomes included natural killer (NK) cell activity and lymphocyte subsets (CD3, CD4, CD8 and CD19), alongside immunoglobulins and inflammatory cytokines. Haematological, metabolic, hepatic and renal parameters were also monitored for safety. NK-cell activity increased significantly from baseline in men after four weeks (P=0.049, denoting a 34.11% increase), while in women it significantly increased after eight weeks (P=0.023) and the change was significantly greater than placebo (P=0.005). There were no significant treatment effects on CD3, CD4, CD8 or CD19 cell numbers or IgA, IgG and IgM concentrations.

    The intervention appeared well tolerated, with no withdrawals due to adverse events and no significant differences in measured safety parameters. Overall, the findings provide preliminary evidence that fermented C. militaris may enhance NK-cell activity in healthy adults, suggesting an immunomodulatory effect; however, the very small sample (only 10 participants per sex/treatment subgroup) indicates the need for further research amongst a greater number of participants (22). 

  • Historical use of cordyceps

    The Sustainability Of Cordyceps
    Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis)

    Ophiocordyceps sinensis has been recorded in ancient Chinese and Tibetan medicine for over 700 years (6). Its uses include for weakness of the lower back and limbs, nocturia, frequent urination, poor memory, tinnitus or recovery from illness (1). Mirroring its modern applications, cordyceps was also applied to chronic respiratory conditions  such as consumptive cough accompanied by qi or yin deficiency (1). This long history of use refers to Ophiocordyceps sinensis (previously Cordyceps sinensis) rather than Cordyceps militaris, which is the cultivated variety that is now classified as a novel food.

    Traditional healers across Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal and the Tibetan plateau prescribed cordyceps for a variety of ailments including asthma and erectile dysfunction (6,7). 

    Known as yartsa gumbu in Tibet, cordyceps has been used as a tonic for more than 500 years, specifically as a tonic for male virility. Tibetan folklore refers to it as a “miraculous species that becomes a worm in summer and a grass in winter” (8). Male impotence and premature ejaculation being among some of the traditional applications mentioned in the Chinese Pharmacopeia (6,9). It was then classified as a drug in the Chinese Pharmacopeia in 1964 (10). 

  • Cordyceps’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • Cordyceps’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the description that herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel and affect the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment impacts health, according to each of their philosophies and frameworks. These assessments of individual herbs, though they often do align, can differ from one another due to cultural differences regarding perspectives on how herbs taste versus their physiological effects. Find out more about traditional energetics in our article An introduction to herbal energetics.

  • What can I use cordyceps for?

    Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis)
    Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis)

    Cordyceps can be used as an adaptogen and restorative tonic to support individuals through times of acute or chronic stress, fatigue, convalescence or reduce physical resilience (1,2). Cordyceps helps to improve physical capacity, aerobic activity and energy through its effect on improving blood oxygenation by enhancing gaseous exchange in the lungs (3). It is also considered a respiratory tonic, acting as an antitussive, bronchodilator and expectorant and thus can be applied to help a range of conditions including asthma, bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, wheezing and phlegm in the lungs (2,3). 

    Cordyceps supports reproductive health by improving fertility in women, as well as acting to address impotence, premature ejaculation and low libido in men (1,3). Furthermore, cordyceps has been found to improve sperm count, quality and motility (3). 

    The immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory actions of cordyceps, indicates the fungus for a  dysfunctional immune system, whether over- or underactive. Owing to these qualities, cordyceps can also be a valuable part of an adjunct therapy in the support of patients with cancer (3). 

    Cordyceps also offers metabolic, hepatic and cardiovascular support by helping to lower blood glucose, restore liver function and protect the cardiac tissue from damage (3,4). 

  • Did you know?

    Historically, cordyceps was rare and highly regarded as a medicine, and it was reserved for use only by the Emperor and royal family. In China, cordyceps is used as a stuffing in a roasted duck. This preparation is considered to be a delicacy, the mushroom would infuse the duck meat, which was believed to promote longevity, prevent illness and restore vitality (23).

    Wild Ophiocordyceps sinensis is also known as the caterpillar fungus due to the fact that it develops by parasitically enveloping the larvae of ghost moths on the Tibetan plateau. The fungus infects the caterpillar and gradually colonises and kills it, then producing a fruiting body that emerges from the caterpillar and through the soil. Wild harvested specimens therefore consist of the mummified caterpillar and fungal fruiting body (24). Cultivated specimens, however, are grown on more sustainable and ethical substrates such as rice, wheat or grains (25).

  • Mycological description

    Belonging to the family Ophiocordycipitaceae, cordyceps is a parasitic fungi that grows mainly on insects and other arthropods, primarily on lepidopterous (butterflies and moth) caterpillars.

    Cordyceps thrives in high altitudes and cold, grassy, alpine grasslands of the Tibetan, Nepalese, Bhutanese, and Indian Himalayan areas.

    The spores of cordyceps are spread by wind over the soil and onto plants, where they come into contact with the larvae, particularly when the caterpillars emerge to feed on roots and herbaceous vegetation.

    Larvae were observed eating tender roots of alpine meadow species such as Polygonum, Astragalus, Salix, and Rhododendron.

    The infected hosts live underground where they can spend up to five years before pupating. Cordyceps spores enter the bodies of their host either through the mouth or the respiratory pores. The mycelium then invades the caterpillar’s body, filling its cavity, killing the insect, and eventually completely replacing the host tissue. The dead caterpillar appears yellowish to brown in colour.

    The cylindrical club-shaped fruiting body, between 5–15 cm long and orange brown to reddish brown in color, grows up from spring to early summer, protruding and developing out of the caterpillar’s head.

    The length of the dried mushroom spans from 3 to 10 centimetres (26).

  • Common names

    The name Cordyceps comes from the Greek kordylē (club) and Latin -ceps (head), describing its club-shaped fruiting body, while sinensis means ‘Chinese’. In Chinese, it is known as dong chong xia cao, meaning ‘winter worm, summer grass’. 

    • Caterpillar fungus
    • Scarlet caterpillarclub
    • Club head fungus
    • Yartsa gunbu
    • Dong chong xia cao

  • Habitat

    Cordyceps is native to high altitude alpine environments including the Tibetan plateau and Himalayas spanning China, Nepal, Bhutan and northern India. It is predominantly found at between 3–5,000 metres above sea level in areas with cold winters, harsh sunlight, alpine meadows and adequate soil moisture (27). 

    In British woodlands and grasslands the Cordyceps miltaris speicies (known as the scarlet caterpillarclub) can be found growing.

  • How to grow cordyceps

    Cordyceps can be cultivated indoors under controlled conditions. 

    • Firstly, prepare the substrate by placing brown rice into sterile jars or containers, roughly 20 g of brown rice with 32 ml of nutrient solution per 500 ml container. 
    • The substrate needs to be thoroughly sterilised, normal methods include using a 121°C autoclaving to effectively remove any microbes that may inhibit growth. 
    • Inoculate with Cordyceps militaris. 
    • Keep the containers in a dark place to allow for inoculation, which may take up to two weeks. Successful inoculation will be obvious due to the visible white mycelium spread across the substrate. 
    • Introduce regular intervals of light, between 8–12 hours per day. 
    • Maintain cool and humid conditions, between 16–23°C and 70–90% humidity. 
    • If successful, eventually small orange club shaped fruiting bodies will rise from the substrate (28). 

  • Herbal preparation of cordyceps

    • Tincture
    • Decoction
    • Dried / Powdered Mushroom
    • Capsule

  • Fungal parts used

    Fruiting body, mycelium

  • Dosage

    • Tincture (1:4, 25%): 2–4 ml up to three times per day (1,2)
    • Decoction: Add one – half a tsp of powdered mushroom or mycelium to 300 ml water, decoction (simmer) for one hour. Take one or two cups a day.
    • Standardised encapsulated powder: 1–2 g 2–3 times daily (4)

  • Constituents

    • Polysaccharides: Beta-glucans, heteroglucans, exopolysaccharides
    • Nucleosides and nucleoside analogues: Cordycepin, adenosine, adenosine monophosphate, adenosine triphosphate and cyclic 
    • Proteins and amino acids: Proteoglycans and glycoproteins
    • Glycoproteins
    • Fatty acids: 31.69% oleic, 68.31% linoleic
    • Polyamines
    • Ecdysterones
    • Sterols – Ergosterol
    • L-Tryptophan (2,13)

  • Cordyceps recipe

    Cordyceps and cacao restorative drink 

    This recipe combines cordyceps, cacao and other spices to create a delicious drink to support energy and resilience. 

    Ingredients

    • 250 ml oat (or alternative) milk 
    • 1–2 g cordyceps powder 
    • 1 tbsp cacao powder 
    • ½ tsp cinnamon powder
    • ¼ tsp ground ginger powder 
    • 1 cardamom pod, crushed 
    • Optional honey or sweetener to taste 

    How to make a cordyceps drink

    • Add the milk, powders and cardamom pod to a saucepan. 
    • Heat gently, whisking regularly to remove any lumps. 
    • Continue to heat until it’s hot, but not boiling. 
    • Remove from the heat and serve in a mug, adding sweetener if desired. 
Fermented cordyceps: Improved sleep quality

Fermented cordyceps: Improved sleep quality

  • Safety

    Some cases of mild side effects have been reported when taken in higher doses — above 5 g per day — including gastrointestinal upset, headaches or restlessness (1,2). 

    There is a lack of reliable safety data in regard to the use of cordyceps during pregnancy, and, as such, caution is advised (29).  Please seek the guidance of a qualified medical herbalist before using cordyceps during pregnancy.

  • Interactions

    Cordyceps may increase the risk of bleeding when taken in conjunction with anticoagulants and antiplatelet medication (2,30). 

    Caution is also advised alongside immunosuppressant medication (30). 

  • Contraindications

    Due to the hormonal modulatory effects of cordyceps, it is contraindicated alongside hormone dependent cancers such as oestrogen receptor positive breast cancer or prostate cancer (2,3). 

    Caution is advised in autoimmune conditions, and should be discontinued two weeks before any surgery due to its blood thinning effect (29).

  • Sustainability status of cordyceps

    Wild Ophiocordyceps sinensis is vulnerable and under pressure. This is due to significant overharvesting coupled with its restricted distribution in its natural habitat and its slow regeneration after harvesting (31).

    Harvesting can occur before the fruiting body reaches reproductive maturity, thereby preventing the spread of spores and continued growth (32). It is listed as ‘vulnerable’ on the IUCN redlist and as such sourcing only cultivated varieties of this mushroom is recommended (33).

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Ophiocordyceps sinensis is predominantly wild harvested, and currently under sustainability pressure as a result. Artificial cultivation of O.sinensis involving fermentation of fungal mycelium is now being established to meet demand; however, this method will invariably impact the phytoconstituents of the mushroom (34).

    Cordyceps militaris is easier to cultivate and is widely cultivated commercially. However, in the UK C. militaris iis currently under novel food classification and cannot be sold as a food or supplement (35). Cordyceps is subject to significant adulteration risks due to the high value placed on it, resulting in substitution, mislabelling and adulteration (34). 

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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