A voice for
herbal medicine

We share traditional, scientific and practical insights written by experienced herbalists and health experts from the world of herbal medicine and natural health

  • Herb overview

    Safety

    High doses can cause anxiety, palpitation and insomnia.
    Not suitable in high doses for children, pregnancy and lactation. Caution around heavy metal content.

    Sustainability

    Status: Caution: At risk

    Key constituents

    Cannabinoids: Anandamide
    Alkaloids: Caffeine, theobromine
    Polyphenols
    Flavonoids

    Quality

    Amazon basin
    cultivated
    Potential risk of heavy metal contamination and adulteration with other products

    Key actions

    Antioxidant
    Cardiotonic
    Vasodilator
    Nootropic

    Key indications

    Depression
    Cardiovascular issues
    Fatigue
    Cognitive impairment

    Key energetics

    Warm
    Moist
    Tonifying
    Sweet

    Preperation and dosage

    Bean
    30 g/per day

  • How does it feel?

    Cacao powder, nibs and beans have a predominantly bitter flavour, followed by a sweet, earthy taste. The shells, when made into an infusion have a lighter, more sweet and characteristic chocolate flavour.

    Cacao (Theobroma cacao)
    Cacao (Theobroma cacao)
    Cacao (Theobroma cacao)

  • Into the heart of cacao

    Cacao (Theobroma cacao)
    Cacao (Theobroma cacao)

    Cacao can be considered as cooling and drying, as is commonly attributed to bitter plants. In essence, it has long been regarded as a sacred plant associated with pleasure, arousal and emotional wellbeing. It is known to lift the spirits and provide energy to those who are depleted (4,8). 

    One of the psychoactive compounds in cacao that is thought to be responsible for some of its psychospiritual effects is theobromine, an alkaloid, as well as the well known cannabinoid— anandamide, also known as ‘the bliss molecule’. The word theobromine derives from its botanical name Theobroma cacao, which translates as ‘food of the Gods’. Theobromine is a bitter alkaloid which has been shown to be mildly stimulating as well as mood enhancing (9,10). 

    The presence of flavonoids is predominantly responsible for its cardiovascular effects, as they have been shown to increase nitric oxide bioavailability in the vascular tissues which helps with vasodilation and a decrease in blood pressure (11). This mechanism extends to increasing blood flow and oxygen to the brain, helping with cognition and mental clarity (6). 

    Cacao is often referred to in ceremony as a ‘heart opener’, this is considered to result from a combination of its effects on mood and pleasure, as well as the effect on vasculature of the heart and peripheral vasodilation (8,10). 

  • What practitioners say

    Cacao (Theobroma cacao)
    Cacao (Theobroma cacao)

    Nervous system

    Cacao is a central nervous system stimulant, mood enhancer and antidepressant, all of which can be attributed to its phytoconstituents (5,6). The presence of the amino acid tryptophan acts as a precursor to serotonin which can help alleviate depression and low mood as well as symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), whilst phenethylamine helps to trigger the release of endorphins and dopamine activity (7,18).

    Cacao also contains anandamide, a cannabinoid which binds to endocannabinoid receptors and helps to produce feelings of pleasure and happiness (3). It can be applied to help recovery from fatigue or brain fog (3). 

    Cacao is an excellent medicine to use to support memory and focus as it also contains small amounts of caffeine which can improve focus and mental clarity (6). The flavonoids also help to improve cognition through improved angiogenesis and neurogenesis (19). Cacao also offers neuroprotective actions and can be applied to help prevent neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and cognitive decline (19).  

    Cacao also contains high levels of magnesium which helps to restore nerve function and muscle relaxation (3). 

    Cardiovascular system

    Cacao can be applied as an antihypertensive and peripheral vasodilator by improving endothelial function and relaxing the blood vessel walls (11). This effect has been shown to reduce both diastolic and systolic blood pressure (20). It can also be applied to help lower LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels, helping to prevent the development of cardiovascular disease, mostly in part to the antioxidant, polyphenol and theobromine content (7,20). By lowering LDL cholesterol levels, this extends to helping to prevent the formation of atheromas and atherosclerosis (21). 

    Cacao can be effective in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease through its effects on supporting endothelial function and increasing nitric oxide activity and vasodilation (20). 

    Skin health 

    Cocoa butter is widely used as a topical treatment for a variety of skin issues including dry, cracked or inflamed skin (7). It has potent emollient properties, and offers significant hydration as well as a rich source of fatty acids including linoleic, stearic, palmitis and oleic acids (22). The butter also makes an effective base for supporting the application of other herbs to sensitive tissues, for example in the form of pessaries or suppositorites (23).

  • Cacao research

    Cacao (Theobroma cacao)
    Cacao (Theobroma cacao)

    Effect of cocoa flavanol supplementation for the prevention of cardiovascular disease events: the COcoa supplement and multivitamin outcomes study (COSMOS) randomised clinical trial

    This randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was carried out to assess whether long-term intake of cocoa extract could reduce cardiovascular disease (CVD) events in older adults. The study included 21,442 US adults, comprising 12,666 women aged ≥65 years and 8,776 men aged ≥60 years, all free from major CVD.

    Participants received either cocoa extract providing 500 mg flavanols daily, including 80 mg (−)-epicatechin, or placebo, with an average follow-up time of 3.6 years. The primary outcome was total cardiovascular events, including myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, coronary revascularisation, cardiovascular death, carotid artery disease, peripheral artery surgery and unstable angina.

    Cocoa supplementation resulted in 410 cardiovascular events compared with 456 with placebo, corresponding to a 10% lower risk (P=0.11). Secondary outcomes included a significant reduction in cardiovascular mortality (27%) whilst also being slight reductions in MI (HR 0.87), stroke (HR 0.91), coronary revascularisation (HR 0.95) and overall mortality (HR 0.89). No significant safety concerns were identified. Overall, cocoa showed a reduction in cardiovascular mortality and a reduction in other cardiovascular related diseases, although further studies are required (24).

    A single intake of flavanol-rich cocoa improves inhibitory executive process under cognitive fatigue during aerobic exercise in men: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial

    This randomised, double-blind, crossover trial was undertaken to determine whether consumption of high-cocoa flavanol could improve reaction time and inhibitory executive function during prolonged cognitive load combined with aerobic exercise. The study included 18 healthy young men, with a mean age of 22 years.

    Each participant completed both conditions, consuming capsules containing either 500 mg cocoa flavanols (HCF) or 50 mg cocoa flavanols (LCF) one hour before undertaking a 50 minute cognitive-exercise combining a colour word Stroop task (CWST) with moderate intensity cycling. The primary cognitive outcomes were reaction time and reverse-Stroop interference score (an assessment of cognitive inhibition).

    At one hour post supplementation, HCF significantly improved reaction time compared with LCF (P<0.01) and produced a significantly better reverse-Stroop interference score (P<0.01). During the combined cognitive and exercise task, reaction time was also significantly faster in the HCF group (P<0.05), while inhibitory executive performance was significantly better (P<0.05).

    Overall, a single 500 mg dose of cocoa flavanols improved reaction speed and inhibitory executive function both at rest and during simultaneous cognitive and aerobic exercise, compared with a low-flavanol control (25).

    The effect of cocoa-rich products on depression, anxiety, and mood: A systematic review and meta-analysis

    This systematic review and meta-analysis examined whether consumption of cocoa-rich foods improves depressive or anxiety symptoms. Following PRISMA guidelines, the authors screened 761 records and included nine studies. Of the included studies, five investigated the acute effects of a single cocoa administration, two examined short-term consumption over three days, and two investigated longer-term consumption of more than one week of varying doses.

    The primary outcomes were changes in depressive and anxiety symptoms and measures of positive and negative affect. Meta-analysis found that cocoa-rich products produced significant, moderate improvements in depressive and anxiety symptoms, alongside a significant increase in positive affect and reduction in negative affect.

    Overall, the findings suggest that cocoa-rich products may produce modest-to-moderate short-term improvements in mood and affect; however, more studies are required amongst a greater number of participants to further explore the long term effect of cocoa consumption (26).

  • Historical use of cacao

    Cacao ceremony (Theobroma cacao)
    Cacao ceremony (Theobroma cacao)

    Cacao has long been used as a food and medicine by the people of Mesoamerica, with archaeological research finding evidence of use as far back as 1000 BCE (12).

    As a native medicine of South America, cacao was traditionally used in sacred practice during ceremonies. This included its use in rites of passage ceremonies including births, deaths and marriages and it was closely linked to notions of power and sacrifice (1). Cacao was used at the Olmec capital of San Lorenzo between 1800 and 1000 BCE in rituals of human sacrifice, denoting its power importance (12). Amongst the Maya, cacao was associated with fertility, regeneration and sacrifice and form a ritual offering to facilitate the communication between Maya royalty and divine essence (13). 

    Traditionally, a deep decoction was made using a paste from the pure cacao nibs and mixed with water. When used in this way, cacao was believed to be able to work on the energetic heart, facilitating deep meditative state (1). Whilst cacao isn’t a psychedelic, it is well understood for its actions upon the mind as a gentle psychoactive and nervine medicine. 

    The Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Toltec and Aztec claimed both nutritional and medicinal benefits from cacao prepared as a beverage. Some of these uses included nervous exhaustion, digestive dysfunction and emaciation (14).  The tree was reportedly used as a source of materials for various objects that were central to daily life.

    The Florentine Codex (1590) lists over 100 medicinal uses for cacao, including for fever and heart conditions whilst the Badianus Codex (1552) reports the use of the flowers for fatigue (15).

    Cacao beans also served as a key form of currency, and the Aztecs considered them “money that grew on trees”, reflected in language as the word for money doubled as the word for cacao (16). 

    The Spanish conquest was responsible for introducing cacao to Europe around 1527, where it was drunk amongst kings and aristocrats for its stimulating effects (17). It was later introduced to the UK in 1657 where it continued to be revered and valued by the upper classes (17).

  • Cacao’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

  • Cacao’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the description that herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel and effect the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment impacts health, according to each of their philosophies and frameworks. These assessments of individual herbs, though often do align, can differ from one another. Find out more about traditional energetics in our article An introduction to herbal energetics.

  • What can I use cacao for?

    Cacao (Theobroma cacao)
    Cacao (Theobroma cacao)

    Cacao, often associated with chocolate, is a plant rooted in ritual and cultural significance spanning back thousands of years. This bean is incredibly nutrient dense with a myriad of applications for cardiovascular and metabolic health as well as supporting mood and emotional wellbeing (1).

    Considered a cardioprotective, cacao can improve the health of blood vessels and the muscle surrounding the heart making it helpful in regulating blood pressure and managing cholesterol and lipid levels (2,3).   Despite being commonly associated with sweet treats and desert, cacao offers metabolic support by improving insulin sensitivity and promoting the metabolism of fat (2,3). 

    Cacao is perhaps most commonly associated with enhancing mood through its actions on the brain and nervous system. It offers antidepressant actions, as a result of theobromine, and also acts to increase brain levels of serotonin whilst stimulating the release of endorphins and dopamine (4,5). Due to its stimulant properties, cacao can also be applied to reduce feelings of fatigue and promote alertness, cognitive function and energy levels (5,6). 

    Owing to its effects on the nervous system and vascular function, cacao is also regarded as an aphrodisiac and works to improve feelings of arousal, happiness and pleasure and so supports libido and sexual function (3,7). 

  • Did you know?

    Theobroma means “Food of the gods” (27). Following the journey of cacao to Europe from Mesoamerica, milk chocolate was first created in 1875 when a swiss chocolatier experimented by mixing condensed milk and sugar with cacao (27).

  • Botanical description

    The cocoa tree is an evergreen that grows up to 8 m (26 ft) tall. It has pale brown bark, and a taproot.

    The tree has dark green leaves that are glossy and oval shaped, up to 35 cm long and 8 cm wide. The surface of the leaves is either hairless or covered in scattered star- shaped hairs.

    The small flowers are yellowish white to pale pink, are grouped together in clusters and arise directly from the trunk. They are produced throughout the year. The flowers are pollinated by midges in the wild.

    The flowers, after pollination, develop into massive fruits. These are large, pear-shaped, red-yellow seed pods up to 25 cm long. It contains up to 50 seeds that are surrounded by a white pulp. These seed pods are harvested multiple times per year. The seed, husk, and oil are all used and the pulp is also edible (28).

  • Common names

    • Cacao
    • Cocoa
    • Chocolate tree
    • Theobroma
    • ‘Food of the Gods’

  • Habitat

    Theobroma cacao is native to tropical areas of America with the greatest concentration in the Amazon basin and is now widely cultivated in other areas including  tropical African and Asian countries. There are three main cultivars; Criollo, Forastero (the most common), and Arriba (29).

  • How to grow cacao

    Growing cacao in the northern hemisphere is not an easy task, this is because cacao is an understory plant of warm rainforests. Growing cacao trees requires mimicking these conditions. Cacao grows successfully in USDA zones 11–13. However it may be grown under warm and humid conditions in a greenhouse, and will require more vigilant and specialised care.

    To grow from seed, viable cacao seeds must still be retained in the fresh pod, or at least to have been kept moist since their removal from the pod. If dried out, they will be unviable.

    Seeds may begin sprouting from the pod. If your seeds have no roots yet, place them between damp paper towels in a warm (80 degrees F + / over 26 C.) area until they begin to root.

    Pot the rooted seeds in individual pots filled with damp seed starter soil. Place the seed vertically with the root end facing down, covering with soil just to the top of the seed. 

    For best results, cover the pots with cling film or similar. It is worth placing them on a germination mat to maintain a temperature of around 80 f (27 C.). Within 5–10 days, the seed should sprout, remove the wrap and put the seedlings on a partially shaded windowsill or under the end of a grow light.

    Cacao trees should be kept damp and at temperatures between 65–85 degrees F. (18-29 C.), however, warmer is better. Fertilise every two weeks from spring through fall (30).

  • Herbal preparation of cacao

    Cacao is often consumed as a food, where it offers many of its therapeutic benefits. In a clinical setting, cacao can also sometimes be used by herbalists in tincture or powdered forms. Both raw and roasted cacao preparations are used, as they both have medicinal and nutritional benefits. 

    Raw cacao is often thought to be superior. Raw cacao is not completely unprocessed as it will have been fermented. It is, however, unroasted. Cocoa powder is both fermented and roasted.

    Unroasted ‘raw’ cacao contains higher levels of polyphenols and flavonoids that other preparations (31).

  • Plant parts used

    • Bean (the nibs that come from inside the bean are used)
    • Cacao shells and butter can also be used for food though they are not as medicinal.

  • Dosage

    Cacao is typically consumed in the form of dark chocolate, nibs, or powder. Recommended dosages for medicinal uses report a maximum of 30 g per day (3).

    Ceremonial dosage of cacao is thought to be around 42 g of raw cacao per person. This is a strong dose that is used to encourage a meditative state and should only be taken on occasion.

  • Constituents

    • Cannabinoids: Anandamide
    • Alkaloids: Caffeine, theobromine (1–4%), phenylethylamine
    • Polyphenols (10%): Proanthocyanidins and catechins
    • Flavonoids: Anthocyanins
    • Phenolic compounds: Resveratrol
    • Minerals: Potassium, phosphorous, copper, zinc, iron, magnesium
    • Fatty acids: Oleic acid (33%), palmitic acid (25%), stearic acid, linoleic acid (33%) (3,32)

  • Cacao recipe

    Calming hot chocolate

    Ingredients

    • 1/2 tsp powdered ashwagandha
    • 2 tsp powdered cocoa or cacao
    • 1 pinch of nutmeg
    • 1/4 tsp vanilla extract
    • Add sweetener to taste

    How to make a calming hot chocolate

    • Blend powder with a small amount of hot water to make a paste.
    • Add hot milk of choice and stir.
    • Enjoy!

     

    Bliss of the gods hot chocolate

    Theobroma cacao is known as cocoa, and chocolate once sugar and fat has been added. ). Theobroma means ‘food of the gods’ – and with good reason. Try this elixir for an entirely new and extremely decadent experience.

    Ingredients

    • 100 g unsweetened chocolate or cacao
    • 100 ml water or nut milk
    • 1–2 drops vanilla bean essence to taste
    • Honey to taste

    This will serve two small cups of blissful hot chocolate.

    How to make a blissful hot chocolate

    • Melt the chocolate in a bain-marie before stirring in the water or nut milk.
    • Add the vanilla bean essence and honey to taste then pour into small coffee cups.
    • Play around with this recipe. Add a drop of orange essential oil or some rose water to transform it into.

    Recipes from Cleanse, Nurture, Restore by Sebastian Pole

Cocoa: Supporting the gut microbiome

Cocoa: Supporting the gut microbiome

  • Safety

    Cacao is safe when used in quantities contained within food. It is important to note that cacao contains natural caffeine and may be unsafe in doses higher than 400 mg per day depending on individual caffeine tolerance. While most cacao products contain only small amounts of caffeine (approximately 2 mg to 35 mg per serving), one cup of unsweetened, dry cacao powder can contain up to 198 mg of caffeine (3,23).

    High doses of chocolate have been identified as a potential trigger for migraines (23). Excessive intake can also result in anxiety, insomnia, palpitations and restlessness due to its stimulating action (23). 

    Cacao is safe to use in pregnancy and lactation, however, it is important to monitor caffeine intake to a limit of 200 mg per day (23). Caution is advised against consuming large quantities of cacao during pregnancy due to the potential for heavy metals to impact the foetus (33).

    Caution is advised amongst high consumption in children due to the potential for cadmium and lead poisoning (33). 

  • Interactions

    There are a number of theoretical interactions with medications including alongside ACE inhibitors, alcohol, adenosine, anticoagulants, antihypertensives and beta adrenergic agonists (33).

  • Contraindications

    None known

  • Sustainability status of cacao

    Cacao is classed as ‘data deficient’ by the IUCN Red List (34). However, it is important to consider fair-trade and sustainability when sourcing medicinal and nutritional products, with cacao this is particularly important. 

    Cacao production contributes significantly to deforestation and monocropping produces far greater yields, however this has a negative impact on local environments and biodiversity (35). The cacao industry is well known for causing vast deforestation in West Africa, particularly in the Ivory Coast (36). 

    In addition to the environmental factors above, the chocolate (cacao) industry has a century-long history of forced and child labor. Children working on cocoa plantations are sometimes exposed to certain hazards, including dangerous tools, dust, flames or smoke, hazardous chemicals, and/or physically demanding labor such as carrying heavy loads or spending many hours in the sun (37).

    As a result, it is important to source sustainable and ethical chocolate, in a bid to support farming methods that show consideration for people and the planet. ‘Ethically sourced’ chocolate means that the chocolate has been grown, farmed, and produced with the environment in mind and that the company has treated the cocoa growers and farmers fairly. When sourcing cacao or chocolate look for products that clearly display USDA organic and fair trade mark certification. This should be clear on its packaging.

  • Quality control

    Cacao is predominantly cultivated, with the majority of the world’s supply being grown in West Africa (38). Cacao is subject to concerns around cadmium levels dependent on the soil it is cultivated in, with the highest concern surrounding cacao grown in certain areas of Peru (39). The powder can sometimes be adulterated with cheaper carob powder and other allergens including peanut and egg (40). 

    The process of fermenting and drying the beans is critical in releasing its pigments. The polyphenolic compounds undergo a series of reactions, which alters their overall content in the product. Good quality raw cacao products will always go through the fermenting and drying process.

  • References

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    2. Galleano M, Oteiza PI, Fraga CG. Cocoa, chocolate, and cardiovascular disease. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2009;54(6):483-490. doi:10.1097/FJC.0b013e3181b76787
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    5. Khanifah F, Istyastono E. Molecular dynamics simulation of serotonin transport protein complex with 6-hydroxy-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline ligand from chocolate (Theobroma cacao L.) isolate. J Pharm Sci Community. 2023;20(2):179-184. doi:10.24071/jpsc.005939
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    39. Arévalo-Gardini E, Arévalo-Hernández CO, Baligar VC, He ZL. Heavy metal accumulation in leaves and beans of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) in major cacao growing regions in Peru. Sci Total Environ. 2017;605-606:792-800. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.122
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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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