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herbal medicine

We share traditional, scientific and practical insights written by experienced herbalists and health experts from the world of herbal medicine and natural health

  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Not suitable for pregnancy or lactation
    Contraindicated in ulcers, GERD or hyperacidity

    Sustainability

    Caution: At risk

    Key constituents

    Secoiridoids
    Iridoids
    Alkaloids
    Flavonoids

    Quality

    Europe
    Wild harvested and cultivated

    Key actions

    Bitter
    Hepatic
    Cholagogue
    Digestive tonic

    Key indications

    Bloating
    Nausea
    Sluggish digestion
    Malabsorption

    Key energetics

    Cold
    Dry
    Bitter

    Preperation and dosage

    Root
    1–2 g/per day
    3–6 ml per day

  • How does it feel?

    Gentian has a distinctly dusty, bittersweet and aromatic taste. The classic sweet earthiness of roots paired with the richness of its bitter principles make this herb one of the most favoured bitter herbs. Upon tasting, there is almost a caramel like quality, followed by a deep bitterness which remains on the tongue long after ingestion.

    Gentian (Gentiana lutea)
    Gentian (Gentiana lutea)
    Gentian (Gentiana lutea)

  • Into the heart of gentian

    Gentian (Gentiana lutea)
    Gentian (Gentiana lutea)

    Gentian is a primary cooling bitter tonic that, like all bitters, stimulates the appetite and digestive function and reduces excess heat and toxicity (1). 

    Energetically, gentian is considered a cold remedy in that it reduces excess heat and inflammation in the body, enhancing digestion and detoxification. It may be taken in combination with warming herbs such as ginger (Zingiber officinale) and horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) especially where it is being used to treat someone with a cold, debilitated constitution (3,6). Gentian is gently drying, helping to resolve dampness and stagnation associated with poor digestion or insufficient bile flow (6,7). 

    Small doses of bitter herbs like gentian are particularly useful for increasing the appetite in malnourished and debilitated patients as it supports effective digestive response rather than a forceful stimulation (6,7).  Bitters increase digestive fire and where digestive secretions including  pepsin and stomach acid, enabling more efficient digestive processes. However, in excess, bitters weaken digestion and dry the system, so must be used with care (5–7). Gentian can be considered a regulating bitter. 

    Gentian can be considered to support the body following a period of prolonged illness or fever, it acts to build endurance and fortify the body without being excessively stimulating (6,7).

    On an energetic level, gentian can be seen to sharpen discernment, helping the body to distinguish what is nourishing and beneficial, versus what is not. This idea can also be extended to emotional discernment (7). 

  • What practitioners say

    Immune systemDigestive system

    Gentian is an excellent digestive medicine used for a wide range of conditions relating to the digestive system. It is used to stimulate digestive function, increasing saliva and digestive secretions in the stomach and also the production of bile which assists with the assimilation of dietary fats. It can be applied in cases of low stomach acid, poor protein digestion, bloating or a feeling of heaviness. By the same mechanism, gentian is also indicated for gallstones, however it is advised to consult with a medical herbalist in these cases to ascertain whether there is risk of obstruction(1,7).

    As a primary bitter tonic, gentian can effectively support liver function and metabolism of toxins (1,9). This can also be applied to the metabolism of hormones, the excess of which can exacerbate symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) or endometriosis (1,8). 

    Gentian may also be used to support in recovery from gastrointestinal infection and as an anti-inflammatory for peptic ulcers (4). It can be used where appetite is reduced or absent such as after illness, debility or chronic digestive weakness (2,6,9). By strengthening digestive function, gentian helps to improve nutrient absorption, helping to reduce feeling of fatigue, especially in cases of anaemia (1,8). 

    Due to its energetic action of drying damp, it can be applied to resolve digestive dampness, which can present with symptoms including heaviness after meals, sluggishness, bloating or a white coating on the tongue (10). 

    Immune system

    As a cooling bitter remedy, gentian is sometimes indicated in treatment of infectious diseases, fever and post fever recuperation (2,4). There have also been reports of selective antifungal activity of gentian root extracts (11).

    Nervous system

    Gentian can be used, like other bitter remedies, to relieve congestion and stagnation, which often contributes to feelings of ‘melancholia’ or depression. In traditional medicine, this state was often linked to poor digestion or impaired liver function or ‘failure to digest life’ in the literal and metaphorical sense (7,8). This link between the gut and the brain now forms a fundamental viewpoint in medicine, and thus gentian can be applied to relieve feelings of low mood, sluggishness or ‘melancholia’ helping to lift the spirits and clear stagnation (7,8).

  • Gentian research

    Gentian (Gentiana lutea)
    Gentian (Gentiana lutea)

    Gentiana lutea exerts anti-atherosclerotic effects by preventing endothelial inflammation and smooth muscle cell migration

    This preclinical study investigated the anti-atherosclerotic effects of Gentiana lutea (GL) in the form of an aqueous root extract, root powder, and its flavonoid constituent isovitexin using human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), rat aortic smooth muscle cells (RASMCs), and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Results showed  in vitro, both GL extract (1 mg/mL) and isovitexin (5 µmol/L) significantly inhibited TNF-α–induced leukocyte adhesion and reactive oxygen species generation in HUVECs, alongside suppressing TNF-α–stimulated expression. In RASMCs, GL extract and isovitexin blocked PDGF-BB–induced cell migration, and intracellular calcium mobilisation.

    In vivo, dietary supplementation with 2 % GL root powder in diabetic rats reduced total blood cholesterol, decreased lipid accumulation within the aortic wall, and attenuated thickening and collagen deposition. Results showed Gentiana lutea and isovitexin exert anti-atherosclerotic effects through combined anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and lipid lowering actions in a preclinical setting (12). 

    The healing bitterness of Gentiana lutea L., phytochemistry and biological activities: A systematic review 

    A systematic review was carried out to evaluate the biological activities of Gentiana lutea L. The review encompassed 53 publications, including predominantly in vitro and in vivo studies and a small number of human investigations, examining the pharmacological actions of gentian root, rhizome, aerial parts, and its major constituents such as gentiopicroside, amarogentin, isovitexin, loganic acid, and xanthones.

    Across experimental models, gentian extracts and isolated compounds demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, anti-atherosclerotic, antimicrobial, neurotrophic, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, cytoprotective, and dermatological activities, mediated through mechanisms including modulation of oxidative stress, inhibition of inflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules, regulation of lipid and glucose metabolism, activation of AMPK and eNOS signalling, inhibition of smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration, bitter taste receptor activation, and effects on neuronal survival and neurotransmission. These studies show promise for gentian as a supportive, bitter remedy and call for further investigation into human clinical trials (13). 

    In vitro, ex vivo and clinical approaches to evaluate the potential effect of Gentiana lutea extract on skin

    This mixed pre-clinical and human study investigated the effects of a Gentiana lutea extract (GIE) standardised to gentiopicroside (65%) on periocular skin parameters associated with dark circles. In vitro and ex-vivo experiments demonstrated that GIE modulated oxidative stress and angiogenesis pathways.

    Ex-vivo skin explants treated topically with GIE showed reduced markers of glycation stress under basal and UVA-irradiated conditions. These mechanistic findings were complemented by a split-face, placebo-controlled clinical study in 22 subjects, in which a topical cream containing 147 μg mL⁻¹ GIE applied twice daily for 14 days significantly reduced upper eyelid skin roughness, surface relief, and redness of dark circles compared with placebo, as assessed by 3D imaging and skin colour measurements. Overall, the results suggest that Gentiana lutea extract exerts cosmetic and dermal benefits around the eye through combined antioxidant, anti-glycation, and anti-angiogenic mechanisms (14). 

    Radioprotective activity of Gentiana lutea extract and mangiferin

    An in vitro and exploratory human study investigating the radioprotective and radiosensitising actions of a gentian aqueous-ethanol extract on radiation-induced cellular damage was carried out. There was a focus on the decreasing survival of normal human immunocompetent cells, the survival of the malignant cells in vitro, and the survival of ex vivo irradiated cells before and after consumption of the extract by healthy volunteers.

    Gentian extract consumed orally demonstrated a strong potential to reduce the damage effect of x-ray irradiation on normal healthy cells (which were peripheral blood mononuclear cells), in some healthy people, without changing the susceptibility of malignant cells to be destroyed by irradiation. Essentially it protected healthy human cells from radiation but did not protect malignant cells from being destroyed, and so potentially gentian could be a useful complementary therapy for cancer treatment. However, since the radioprotective effect was individually dependent, further clinical studies are needed to understand the effectiveness of this treatment combination (15).

  • Historical use of gentian

    Culpepper writes gentian “resists putrefaction, poison and a more sure remedy can be found to prevent the pestilence that it is; strengthens the stomach exceedingly, helps digestion, comforts the heart and preserves against fainting and swooning” (8).

    Culpepper also speaks of this herb for its action to assist a sluggish liver and restore the appetite (8).

    Gentian was used traditionally by herbalists in Europe externally as a dried root powder to assist with venomous bites and dog bites. It was also used as a vermifuge in cases of parasitic worms. It has also been applied to help with intermittent or lingering fevers, liver insufficiency or for help supporting the elderly or depleted patients (7,8,9). 

  • Gentian’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Chinese actions

  • Gentian’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What can I use gentian for?

    Gentian (Gentiana lutea)
    Gentian (Gentiana lutea)

    Gentian is one of the strongest bitter cooling herbs in Western herbal medicine that can be applied for a number of conditions affecting the digestive system. The bitter constituents act via bitter taste receptors to stimulate salivary, gastric, and biliary secretions, helping to improve digestive function and efficiency (1,2). As a powerful hepatic, gentian helps to increase bile secretion, aiding in the digestion of fats and alleviating sluggish liver function or congestion (1,2,3).

    Gentian is used to treat dyspepsia, as well as any accompanying abdominal discomfort or pain. Symptoms often associated with dyspepsia can be pain or burning sensations and bloating and nausea after eating, although in some people the symptoms may be relieved by eating or may occur unrelated to eating patterns.

    As a digestive tonic, gentian is also used to help improve appetite. This application is referenced in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a primary herb for those suffering with anorexia as it supports the function of the digestive tract (4).

    Gentian is a herb that enhances digestive function and the assimilation of dietary nutrients. It would be well applied to support through convalescence, especially in cases where weakness is linked to poor nutrient assimilation. It can be used to support chronic fatigue, recovery from illness, anaemia or general constitutional weakness (1,2,3).

    This bitter herb also has powerful anti-inflammatory actions . It may be useful where inflammations, such as those seen in inflammatory skin conditions, are linked with poor digestive or liver function (4,5).

  • Did you know?

    Dioscorides wrote that Gentiana lutea was introduced into herbal medicine by King Gentius of Illyria, thus giving its name gentian (16). Gentian forms a key botanical ingredient in many European liqueurs including Aperol and Campari (17).

  • Botanical description

    Gentian is an erect alpine perennial growing to between 60–150 cm tall. It has a central hollow stem, growing from a basal rosette bearing opposite and decussate leaves and supporting floral whorls.

    The flowers are borne in axillary whorls with a bright yellow corolla, typically 5–6 lobed and a tubular calyx. 

    The root (the part most often used medicinally) is a thick, fleshy yellow to brown rhizome with multiple long, branching roots.

    The interior is yellowish-white when fresh, darkening on drying and an intensely bitter taste due to the secoiridoid glycosides (18).

  • Common names

    • Great yellow gentian 
    • Bitter root 
    • Bitterwort 
    • Genciana

  • Habitat

    Gentian is native to the calcareous alpine meadows, moist grasslands, and open pastures of the central and southern European mountain ranges. It can typically be found at altitudes of between 800–2,500 m and prefers cool, moist climates with high amounts of rainfall and well draining but moist soil (19).

  • How to grow gentian

    Gentian grows in reliably moist but well-drained, humus-rich soil in sun or part shade. It thrives in locations with cool, damp summers, such as in the Western or Central Europe. It will not tolerate drought or water-logging.

    Gentian can be planted in the garden in spring or autumn. Put gentian in small groups with a planting distance of about 50 centimetres (20 in).

    For young plants, the use of weed fleece is recommended to prevent the slow-growing plants from overgrowing.

    Water sparingly and always keep the soil a little bit moist. Gentian plants are easy to grow in the correct conditions (20).

  • Herbal preparation of gentian

    • Dried root powder
    • Dried root (decoction)
    • Tincture

  • Plant parts used

    Root

  • Dosage

    • Tincture (1:5 | 45%): 1–2ml three times a day. It is best taken before 10–20 minutes before meals (1,7).
    • Fluid extract (1:1 | 45%):  0.5–1 ml up to twice daily
    • Infusion/decoction: Decoct 1–2 g of dried root in a cup of water for 10 minutes on a gentle heat. Drink warm 15–30 minutes before a meal.
    • Dried herb: 0.5–2 g of dried herb three times a day, taken 15–30 minutes before a meal, or anytime that acute stomach pain is associated with feeling of fullness (1,7).

  • Constituents

    • Iridoids: Loganic acid 
    • Secoiridoids: Gentiopicroside, amarogentian, swertiamarin, sweroside, eustomoside, eustomorusside and septemfidoside
    • Xanthones: Gentisin, isogentisin, mangiferin and gentioside
    • Flavonoids: Isovitexin, isoorientin, isosaponarin
    • Alkaloids: Gentianine
    • Phenolic acids: Gentisic, caffein
    • Polysaccharides
    • Lipids
    • Volatile oils (21)

  • Gentian recipe

    Gentian spritz

    This gentian cordial spritz is a refreshing drink to support digestion.

    Ingredients

    • 5–10 drops gentian tincture 
    • 20 ml elderflower cordial 
    • 5 ml fresh lemon juice 
    • 150 ml sparkling water
    • Ice

    How to make gentian cordial

    • Add the elderflower cordial and lemon juice to a glass then add the ice. 
    • Fill with sparkling water and then add the gentian. 
    • Stir gently.  
    • Enjoy!  
Digestive bitters mix: A herbal tonic to stimulate digestion

Digestive bitters mix: A herbal tonic to stimulate digestion

  • Safety

    Gentian has a long history of use for digestive support with minimally reported adverse effects (1,7,22). It is not recommended during pregnancy as it may have slight uterine stimulant properties (1,7,22). It is not recommended during lactation (1,7,22).

  • Interactions

    There is a theoretical risk that gentian may increase the risk of hypotension when combined with antihypertensive medication, but this has not been confirmed in clinical trials (23).

  • Contraindications

    Contraindicated in gastric or duodenal ulcers as gentian can stimulate gastric acid secretion and pepsin release, aggravating ulcerative conditions (1,7,22). 

    It is also contraindicated in hyperacidity, gastritis and gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GERD) (1,7,22).

  • Sustainability status of gentian

    According to the IUCN Red List, gentian is classed as least concern as it is widespread with stable populations in parts of its range and therefore the risk of the species going completely extinct in Europe is relatively low. However, IUCN also states that populations are decreasing and that there are concerns surrounding its sustainability elsewhere around the globe and calls for monitoring of these populations (24).

    Other sources state its vulnerability due to slow growth rate, restricted alpine habitat and high commercial demand (18,21). It is, therefore, recommended to source gentian from reputable suppliers who employ sustainable methods. 

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Historically, gentian has always been wild harvested, which has contributed to the decline of wild populations and this method of harvesting is now actively discouraged due to ethical and sustainability concerns (25).

  • References

    1. Bone K, Mills S. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. 2nd ed. Edinburgh Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier; 2013.
    2. Mcintyre A. Complete Herbal Tutor : The Definitive Guide to the Principles and Practices of Herbal Medicine (Second Edition). Aeon Books Limited; 2019.
    3. Hedley C, Shaw N. Plant Medicine. (Waddell G, ed.). Aeon Books; 2023.
    4. British Herbal Medicine Association. British Herbal Pharmacopeia 1996. British Herbal Medicine Association; 1996.
    5. Mills S, Bone K. The Essential Guide to Herbal Safety. Elsevier Churchill Livingstone; 2005.
    6. Wood M. The Practice of Traditional Western Herbalism : Basic Doctrine, Energetics, and Classification. North Atlantic Books, Cop; 2004.
    7. Hoffmann D. Medical Herbalism : The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Healing Arts Press; 2003.
    8. Culpeper N. The Complete Herbal. anboco; 2016.
    9. Fisher C. Materia Medica of Western Herbs. Aeon Books; 2018.
    10. Bensky D, Gamble A, Kaptchuk D. Chinese Herbal Medicine : Materia Medica. Eastland; 1993.
    11. Tan RX, Wolfender JL ., Ma WG, Zhang LX, Hostettmann K. Secoiridoids and antifungal aromatic acids from Gentiana algida. Phytochemistry. 1996;41(1):111-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(95)00599-4 
    12. Kesavan R, Chandel S, Upadhyay S, et al. Gentiana lutea exerts anti-atherosclerotic effects by preventing endothelial inflammation and smooth muscle cell migration. Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases. 2016;26(4):293-301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2015.12.016 
    13. Ponticelli M, Lela L, Moles M, et al. The healing bitterness of Gentiana lutea L., phytochemistry and biological activities: A systematic review. Phytochemistry. 2023;206:113518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2022.113518 
    14. Berthon J, Cabannes M, Bouton C, Carre M, Bridon E, Filaire E. In vitro, ex vivo and clinical approaches to evaluate the potential effect of Gentiana lutea extract on skin. International Journal of Cosmetic Science. 2023;45(5):688-698. https://doi.org/10.1111/ics.12878 
    15. Menkovic N, Juranic Z, Stanojkovic T, et al. Radioprotective activity of Gentiana lutea extract and mangiferin. Phytotherapy Research. 2010;24(11):1693-1696. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.3225 
    16. Dioscorides Pedanius, Of Anazarbos, Gunther RT. The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides. Classics Of Medicine Library; 1996.
    17. Masters S. The Good Bitter | Distiller Magazine. Distiller Magazine. Published November 7, 2024. Accessed January 15, 2026. https://distilling.com/distillermagazine/the-good-bitter/ 
    18. Rybczyński JJ, Davey MR, Mikuła A. The Gentianaceae – Volume 2: Biotechnology and Applications. Harris County Public Library; 2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-54102-5 
    19. RHS. Gentiana lutea | great yellow gentian Herbaceous Perennial/RHS. Rhs.org.uk. Published 2025. Accessed January 15, 2026. https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/7793/gentiana-lutea/details 
    20. World G. How to grow gentians. BBC Gardeners World Magazine. Published November 3, 2021. Accessed June 20, 2025. https://www.gardenersworld.com/how-to/grow-plants/how-to-grow-gentian/ 
    21. Mirzaee F, Hosseini A, Jouybari HB, Davoodi A, Azadbakht M. Medicinal, biological and phytochemical properties of Gentiana species. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine. 2017;7(4):400-408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.12.013 
    22. Pengelly A. The Constituents of Medicinal Plants. Cab International; 2021.
    23. TRC Healthcare. NatMed Pro – Gentian. Therapeuticresearch.com. Published 2025. Accessed January 15, 2026. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/Data/ProMonographs/Gentian#drug-interactions 
    24. Chiara, Gygax A, Jogan N, and N, Melnyk V, Guillaume. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Gentiana lutea. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Published June 23, 2010. Accessed January 15, 2026. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/162067/5546174 
    25. Interlace. Impact of the production method on the gentian resource and its regeneration – The sustainable development approach of the Gentian sector. Interlace Hub. Published February 12, 2020. Accessed January 15, 2026. https://interlace-hub.com/casestudy/20354

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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