A voice for
herbal medicine

We share traditional, scientific and practical insights written by experienced herbalists and health experts from the world of herbal medicine and natural health

  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Not suitable during pregnancy or lactation
    Caution advised with gallstones and antihypertensives
    Contraindicated in bile duct obstruction

    Sustainability

    Low risk

    Key constituents

    Sesquiterpene lactones
    Phenolic acids
    Flavonoids

    Quality

    Country of origin
    Wild harvested/ cultivated
    Adulteration/ contamination risks

    Key actions

    Bitter
    Antihyperlipidaemic
    Antihypertensive
    Cholagogue

    Key indications

    High cholesterol
    Slow digestive function
    Constipation
    Metabolic syndrome

    Key energetics

    Cool
    Dry
    Bitter

    Preperation and dosage

    Leaf
    1.5–6 g per day
    3–9 ml per day

  • How does it feel?

    Artichoke can be found growing in allotments and gardens around the UK in the summer. Upon chewing a bit of the leaf, tasting a liquid extraction, the earthy bitterness is the first noticeable flavour. The fresh leaf is also used as a vegetable, with its warm earthy tones, similar to a root-like taste. However there is a lingering, almost comforting bitter aftertaste denoting its powerful bitter quality and action on the liver. The bitter taste becomes concentrated on drying.

    Artichoke (Cynara scolymus)
    Artichoke (Cynara scolymus)
    Globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus)

  • Into the heart of globe artichoke

    Artichoke (Cynara scolymus)
    Artichoke (Cynara scolymus)

    Artichoke is first a liver and bile remedy, and it can be applied to relieve ‘liverish’ conditions or ‘crise de foie’ which typically present as slow, sluggish or depressed states (5,6).

    Artichoke’s primary actions are through its cooling bitter properties. The actions of bitter herbs are primarily via promoting detoxification through the liver, and thus improving the quality of blood (6). The liver is responsible for metabolising hormones, drugs and fats, and is a key eliminatory organ in the body. Providing effective liver support is an important consideration across many conditions, and artichoke acts as an effective clearing herb (5,6). 

    The cooling energetics of this plant help to cool excess liver heat, something which is often associated with anger or irritation (5). Energetically, it can be seen to reduce thickness, heaviness or sluggishness as it relieves stagnation and helps to drain dampness from the body (5,6). This cooling quality also extends to relieving hot, congested  or inflammatory states including chronic inflammation and disease. These same actions can be thought of with its effect on cholesterol— clearing, moving congestion and metabolising.

    Artichoke can be thought of to help those who carry extra emotional weight, and may have difficulty letting go. This may also manifest with suppressed anger or frustration. Artichoke helps to clear these excess emotions, providing clarity and a feeling of lightness (4). 

    As with other traditional bitter remedies like dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), there is a simultaneous diuretic effect. This helps to facilitate the removal of toxic metabolites from the body through the urine (3).

  • What practitioners say

    Digestive systemDigestive system

    Artichoke is a first choice for stimulating the production and release of  bile from the liver through the bowel. Patients often report that their stools can become transiently more yellow after taking the remedy. It works by supporting liver function, rather than through a forceful stimulation, alleviating any strain on liver function. It can be used to relieve symptoms of liver stress or congestion, such as intolerance to fats and alcohol, or for biliary problems like gallstones or gallbladder inflammation, however it is contraindicated in biliary obstruction caution is advised in active gallstones  (2,4,10).

    An indication the body may be struggling to digest fats include pale, greasy or stools that are difficult to pass. Adequate bile helps to prevent this, and increases absorption of fat soluble nutrients as well as promoting peristalsis (11). As a hepatic, it supports  metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) as it helps to reduce hepatic fat and cholesterol accumulation (13). 

    Artichoke is an effective gentle bitter digestive remedy that can relieve many symptoms of upset digestion, notably nausea and vomiting (especially associated with rich, fatty food and alcohol consumption), constipation , flatulence, bloating and other symptoms of IBS (irritable bowel syndrome) (1,2,10). As a bitter it is also cooling and is appropriate for traditional ‘damp-heat’ patterns accompanied by yellow coating on the tongue, signs of liver distress, perhaps of inflammatory bowel problems and intolerance to heat and humidity (11). It has developed a reputation for being a prime remedy to aid recovery from hangovers (3,10). 

    Artichoke works effectively in a blend with other herbs, it can be combined with fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), peppermint (Mentha piperita) or chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) for dyspepsia, bloating, flatulence or general abdominal discomfort (1,3). To treat constipation, it partners well with herbs with a stronger laxative and alterative action including dandelion root (Taraxacum officinale), burdock root (Artium lappa) or yellow dock root (Rumex crispus) (1,3).  

    Metabolic and inflammatory

    Artichoke can form part of a treatment protocol for the treatment of metabolic syndrome. It helps to lower lipid levels which indirectly help to improve insulin sensitivity. Dyslipidaemia is a defining feature of metabolic syndrome, thus artichoke is well placed to lower cholesterol and triglycerides (14,15). 

    Cardiovascular system

    Artichoke is known to support cardiometabolic support through its action on reducing dyslipidaemic factors contributing to hypertension and cardiovascular disease (16). By reducing cholesterol levels, this can prevent atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis by preventing endothelial damage and dysfunction (17). It helps to reduce oxidative stress within the endothelium and manage chronic low grade inflammation helping to indirectly support cardiometabolic factors (2,17). 

  • Globe artichoke research

    Artichoke (Cynara scolymus)
    Artichoke (Cynara scolymus)

    Effects of artichoke on blood pressure: A systematic review and meta-analysis

    This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effects of artichoke supplementation on blood pressure. Data was gathered from eight randomised controlled trials (RCTs), comprising adult men and women, generally middle-aged, with either diagnosed hypertension or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Participants received artichoke leaf supplementation (dosages varied across trials, typically standardised extracts) or placebo for 8–12 weeks.

    Primary outcomes included changes in systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP). Results showed showed no significant effect of artichoke supplementation on SBP (WMD −0.77 mmHg, 95% CI −2.76 to 1.22) or DBP (WMD −0.11 mmHg, 95% CI −1.72 to 1.50) compared with placebo. However, subgroup analysis demonstrated that in hypertensive patients, artichoke supplementation significantly reduced SBP (WMD −3.19 mmHg, 95% CI −3.32 to −3.06) and DBP (WMD −2.33 mmHg, 95% CI −2.23 to −2.43), whereas no blood-pressure-lowering effect was observed in NAFLD patients. Additionally, interventions lasting 12 weeks significantly reduced DBP compared to the eight week treatment. The authors conclude that artichoke supplementation may offer modest but clinically relevant blood pressure reduction in hypertensive individuals, particularly with longer treatment times (16).

    Effect of Cynara scolymus L. on cardiometabolic outcomes: An updated meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials and meta-regression

    This systematic review and meta-analysis explored the effect of artichoke on cardiometabolic outcomes including blood glucose, lipid levels, blood pressure, and anthropometrics. A total of 21 high quality RCTs were included covering a total of 1,372 participants between 20–60 years with conditions including hyperlipidaemia, metabolic syndrome, NAFLD, hypertension, or obesity. The treatment involved artichoke leaf extract or placebo with doses ranging from 50 to 2,700 mg/day and durations between six weeks to six months.

    Primary outcomes measured were fasting blood sugar (FBS), HbA1c, fasting insulin, HOMA-IR, LDL-C, HDL-C, total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), systolic/diastolic blood pressure (SBP/DBP), body weight (BW), and BMI and secondary outcomes included looking at liver enzymes. Results showed significant improvements in FBS (WMD −3.76 mg/dL), fasting insulin (−1.35 mIU/L), and HOMA-IR (−1.00), along with significant reductions in LDL-C (−12.94 mg/dL), TC (−19.64 mg/dL), and TG (−13.36 mg/dL); SBP decreased modestly (−1.59 mmHg) when compared to placebo. Liver enzymes improved as secondary findings (AST −4.70 U/L; ALT −3.72 U/L). This study shows promising benefits of artichoke in the treatment of cardiometabolic dysfunction (17).

    Effects of artichoke leaf extract supplementation or artichoke juice consumption on lipid profile: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

    This updated systematic review and meta-analysis explored the effects of artichoke (Cynara scolymus) supplementation on lipid profiles. Data was analysed across 14 RCTs in participants with dyslipidaemia or related cardiovascular disease risk factors. Interventions included artichoke leaf extract or artichoke juice, with dosages ranging from 4–12 weeks. Primary outcomes included changes in triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C).

    Results showed that artichoke extract supplementation significantly reduced TG (WMD −17.01 mg/dL), TC (WMD −17.01 mg/dL), and LDL-C (WMD −17.48 mg/dL), with no significant effect on HDL-C. In contrast, artichoke juice supplementation significantly reduced TG, TC, LDL-C, but was also associated with a reduction in HDL-C. Overall, the findings suggest that artichoke may help to prevent the risk of cardiovascular disease by improving lipid profiles (18).

  • Historical use of globe artichoke

    The medicinal properties of artichoke have been known since antiquity, and it was particularly prized in the 16th to 19th centuries. It enjoyed a revival in the 20th century, particularly in France. This revival was in conjunction with the idea that an overburdened liver would result in ill health, and many conditions were considered a liver crisis ‘crise de foie’ (2). 

    Artichoke was widely considered one of the most effective detox remedies, indicated in ‘liverish’, to include gallbladder and biliary problems, nausea, and difficulty in metabolising fats and alcohol. Skin problems were often linked with this range of causes and were also treated with artichoke leaf. It was an established medicine for jaundice and hepatitis (7,8).

    19th century Eclectic physicians in the USA used artichoke as a blood cleanser (depurative) for the treatment of rheumatism, gout, as well as jaundice. They also valued its diuretic properties and applied it to oedematous conditions, low urine production (oliguria) and urinary stones (2,8).

  • Globe artichoke’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

  • Globe artichoke’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What can I use globe artichoke for?

    Artichoke (Cynara scolymus)
    Artichoke (Cynara scolymus)

    Artichoke leaf is a hepatic remedy, acting on the liver by increasing bile and supporting digestion. It can be considered for those whose diet is rich in fatty foods or alcohol as it helps to effectively facilitate the breakdown of fat (1,2).  It will often safely relieve biliary problems like recurrent gallbladder pains. This herb has a reputation for being used to relieve hangovers after overindulgence in alcohol, most likely due to its notable impact on bile production and liver metabolism (3). 

    Artichoke can be considered if cases of constipation which have not improved with the usual laxative remedies. As a choleretic, artichoke stimulates the production of bile, and its cholagogue action promotes the flow of bile into the intestine. Bile helps to stimulate peristalsis and soften stools, allowing for easier passage without the irritant quality of stimulant laxatives (2,4).  

    Due to its effect on lipid metabolism, artichoke can be applied for more long term use to reduce hyperlipidaemia. This indicates it in the treatment of high cholesterol, obesity and diabetes. Its hepatic actions make it useful in the treatment of metabolic syndrome as it helps to improve phase I and II liver metabolism, which are often impaired and contribute to disease severity in metabolic syndrome (2,4). 

  • Did you know?

    Artichoke leaf is widely favoured as one of the most effective treatments for hangovers (3). During the renaissance, and early modern Europe, the flower of artichoke was considered to provoke Venus and act as an aphrodisiac (19).

  • Botanical description

    Globe artichoke is a perennial plant in the Asteraceae (formerly Compositae), same as milk thistle (Silybum marianum), and is a cultivated hybrid of a thistle, probably Cynara cardunculus L. It is a herbaceous plant which produces flowering stems of 1–2 m or more in length.

    The basal, lobate-bipinnatisect leaves are very large, the stem leaves may be pinnatisect or entire.

    The leaves are grey-green to silver in colour and the underside is covered with a dense layering of fine hairs.

    The inflorescence is formed of purplish-blue flowers grouped in heads which have an involucre of several long bracts which may be spiny.

    The fruit is an oval achene with a plumed pappus (tuft of bristles) (20).

  • Common names

    • Globe artichoke
    • French artichoke
    • Cynara (Eng)
    • Artischocke (Ger)
    • Artichaut (Fr)
    • Artichiocco (Ital)
    • Carciofo (Ital)

  • Habitat

    The globe artichoke is a perennial thistle originating in the Mediterranean, particularly around Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and parts of North Africa. It is typically found in open grasslands, scrub or grassland and is a common plant found growing in allotment to be harvested to be eaten as a delicious vegetable (20,21).

  • How to grow globe artichoke

    1. Sow seeds either indoors or outside in March or April, 13 mm (½in) deep.
    2. Transplant young plants to a warm sunny position in reasonably fertile, free-draining soil when they have at least five true leaves, spacing them 60–90 cm (2–3ft) apart. Later thinning out to leave the strongest seedling at each point. Water during dry weather and weed regularly. Seed-grown plants usually flower in their first summer.
    3. In colder regions, cover plants in late autumn with a mulch of straw, compost or well-rotted manure, to protect them during cold winter weather.
    4. Each spring, mulch with well-rotted manure or home-made compost, when the soil is warm and moist. Fertilise to improve flower production (22).

  • Herbal preparation of globe artichoke

    • Dried herb
    • Powdered herb
    • Capsule
    • Tincture
    • Fluid extract

  • Plant parts used

    • The immature flower of globe artichoke (not to be confused with Jerusalem artichoke)
    • Leaf

  • Dosage

    • Tincture (ratio 1:5 | 40%): Take 1–3 ml three times a day (2,23,24)
    • Infusion/decoction: 1.5–6 g per day (for most therapeutic applications)
    • Other preparations: For treatment of high cholesterol, high doses are recommended of up to the equivalent of 4–9 g of dried leaf per day (2,23,24).

  • Constituents

    • Sesquiterpene lactones (0.5 to 6%): Cynaropicrin (40 to 80% of the total), and cynarascolosides A, B and C
    • Phenolic acids: Caffeic acid derivatives (polyphenols) chlorogenic acid (3-caffeoylquinic acid), cynarin (1,3-dicaffeoylquinic acid), and many other dicaffeoylquinic acid derivatives
    • Flavonoids: Luteolin 7-0 glucoside, luteolin 7-0 rutinoside, luteolin, apigenin 
    • Polysaccharides
    • Phytosterols: Stigmasterol, campesterol, β-sitosterol (24)

  • Globe artichoke recipe

    Digestive bitters

    This digestive bitters mix can be taken to support digestive function and alleviate sluggish or slow digestion.

    Ingredients

    • 20 ml artichoke tincture 
    • 20 ml chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) tincture 
    • 20 ml fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) tincture 
    • 20 ml dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) tincture 
    • 15 ml angelica (Angelica archangelica) tincture 
    • 5 ml gentian (Gentiana lutea) tincture 

    How to make a digestive bitter

    • Combine all ingredients together in an amber bottle. 
    • Label the bottle.  
    • Take 1–5 ml before meals to aid digestion.  
Eat your medicine: Integrating herbs into nutritional therapy

Eat your medicine: Integrating herbs into nutritional therapy

  • Safety

    There is insufficient evidence for its safety during pregnancy and lactation, so is it best to consult a medical herbalist in these instances (2,24,25). There have been some reports of contact dermatitis, and allergic reactions after ingestion for some individuals (2,24,25). 

  • Interactions

    Theoretically, artichoke could cause low blood glucose levels when used in conjunction with antidiabetic medication. It is recommended to monitor blood sugar levels closely to ensure no risk of hypoglycaemia (25). It may also cause low blood pressure when used in conjunction with antihypertensives, and close measurement is also advised (25). Artichoke might increase levels of drugs metabolised by CYP2B6 and decrease those metabolised by CYP2C19 (25).

  • Contraindications

    Contraindicated for those with a known allergy to plants of the Asteraceae family. Contraindicated in patients with obstructed bile ducts (1,2,4,24). 

    Caution is advised for those with gallstones, and it is recommended to consult a medical profession in this case. Avoid in intestinal spasm, hepatocellular disease, cholecystitis or hyperbilirubinaemia (1,2,4,24).

  • Sustainability status of globe artichoke

    Artichoke is a widely cultivated medicine, with no major threats to its growth or local environment. The medicinal leaves can be harvested from the plant without damaging the plant or its growth pattern (1,26,27).

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Artichoke is predominantly cultivated rather than wild harvested, and due to it being a commercial crop, it risks being contaminated with a high amount of pesticides (23).

  • References

    1. Mcintyre A. Complete Herbal Tutor : The Definitive Guide to the Principles and Practices of Herbal Medicine (Second Edition). Aeon Books Limited; 2019.
    2. Bone K, Mills S. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. 2nd ed. Edinburgh Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier; 2013.
    3. Pittler MH, White AR, Stevinson C, Ernst E. Effectiveness of artichoke extract in preventing alcohol-induced hangovers: a randomized controlled trial. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2003;169(12):1269. Accessed January 7, 2026. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC280580/ 
    4.  Hoffmann D. Medical Herbalism : The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Healing Arts Press; 2003.
    5. Wood M. The Practice of Traditional Western Herbalism : Basic Doctrine, Energetics, and Classification. North Atlantic Books, Cop; 2004.
    6. Hedley C, Shaw N. Plant Medicine. (Waddell G, ed.). Aeon Books; 2023.
    7. Grieve M. A Modern Herbal | Artichoke, Globe. Botanical.com. Published 2025. Accessed January 7, 2026. https://botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/artic066.html 
    8. Culpeper N. The Complete Herbal. BoD – Books on Demand; 2018.
    9. Majnooni MB, Ataee M, Bahrami G, et al. The effects of co‐administration of artichoke leaf extract supplementation with metformin and vitamin E in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: A randomized clinical trial. Phytotherapy Research. Published online September 17, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.7279 
    10. Thomsen M. Phytotherapy Desk Reference. 6th ed. Aeon Books; 2022.
    11. Azer SA, Sankararaman S. Steatorrhea. Nih.gov. Published January 21, 2020. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541055/ 
    12. Holmes P. The Energetics of Western Herbs : Treatment Strategies Integrating Western and Oriental Herbal Medicine. Snow Lotus Press; 2006.
    13. Panahi Y, Kianpour P, Mohtashami R, et al. Efficacy of artichoke leaf extract in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A pilot double-blind randomized controlled trial. Phytotherapy Research. 2018;32(7):1382-1387. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6073 
    14. Silva H, Daia AM. Exploring the Cardiovascular Potential of Artichoke—A Comprehensive Review. Biology. 2025;14(4):397-397. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14040397 
    15. Phimarn W, Sungthong B, Wichiyo K. Effect of Cynara scolymus L. on Cardiometabolic Outcomes: An Updated Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials and Meta-regression. Pharmacognosy Magazine. 2024;20(2):372-388. https://doi.org/10.1177/09731296231217557 
    16. Moradi M, Sohrabi G, Golbidi M, et al. Effects of artichoke on blood pressure: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 2021;57:102668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2021.102668 
    17. Amini MR, Sheikhhossein F, Alvani M, et al. Anti-hypertensive Effects of Artichoke Supplementation in Adults: A Systematic Review and Dose-response Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Clinical Nutrition Research. 2022;11(3):214. https://doi.org/10.7762/cnr.2022.11.3.214 
    18. Shahinfar H, Bazshahi E, Amini MR, et al. Effects of artichoke leaf extract supplementation or artichoke juice consumption on lipid profile: A systematic review and dose–response meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials. Phytotherapy Research. Published online September 27, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.7247 
    19. ABC Herbalgram. Artichoke. Herbalgram.org. Published 2026. Accessed January 9, 2026. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/herbalegram/volumes/volume-17/number-6-june/food-as-medicine/artichoke/? 
    20. RHS. Cynara cardunculus Scolymus Group | globe artichoke Herbaceous Perennial/RHS. Rhs.org.uk. Published 2024. Accessed December 7, 2024. https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/56390/cynara-cardunculus-scolymus-group/details 
    21. Royal Botanical Gardens Kew. Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus (L.) Benth. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science. Plants of the World Online. Published 2025. Accessed January 9, 2026. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:125755-3 
    22. RHS. How to grow globe artichokes / RHS Gardening. www.rhs.org.uk. Published 2025. https://www.rhs.org.uk/vegetables/globe-artichokes/grow-your-own 
    23. European Medicines Agency. Assessment Report on Cynara Scolymus L., Folium .; 2011.
    24. Fisher C. Materia Medica of Western Herbs. Aeon Books; 2018.
    25. Natural Medicines Database. Artichoke. Therapeuticresearch.com. Published 2025. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/Data/ProMonographs/Artichoke#safety 
    26. Rana RL, Bux C, Lombardi M. Trends in scientific literature on the environmental sustainability of the artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L. spp.) supply chain. British Food Journal. 2022;125(6):2315-2332. https://doi.org/10.1108/bfj-07-2022-0571
    27. IUCN Redlist. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Published 2025. Accessed January 9, 2026. https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?query=cynara%20scolymus&searchType=species

Related herbs

Gentian (Gentiana lutea)

Gentian

Dandelion leaves (Taraxacum officinalis folia)

Dandelion

Related conditions

High Cholesterol

High cholesterol

Constipation

Constipation

Related articles

Herbs suitable for diabetics

Herbs suitable for diabetics

Plants and the gut microbiome Prebiotics and postbiotics

Plants and the gut microbiome: Prebiotics and postbiotics

Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

Sign up to our newsletter

Sign up to our newsletter to receive the very latest in herbal insights.

Resources