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Pinellia (ban xia) treats phlegm-damp cough, nausea and insomnia

Pinellia

Pinellia ternata

Araceae

Pinellia is a versatile herb used in Chinese medicine for treating phlegm and regulating fluids. Pinellia requires careful preparation to avoid toxic effects. Use under the guidance of a healthcare professional only.

Last reviewed 09/07/2025

Sustainability status

Not currently on risk lists but complete data may be missing on the status of the species. Read more in our sustainability guide.

Sustainability Status
Key benefits
  • Alleviates cough and disperses phlegm
  • Calms the stomach to stop nausea and vomiting
  • Reduces bloating and distention
  • Treats nodules and swellings
  • Calms the nervous system and aids sleep

  • How does it feel?

    Pinellia has a mild and fragrant aroma with spicy, woody notes due to the essential oil content. The taste is pungent with underlying bitter tones, upon tasting the astringent qualities come through in the mouth, felt as a drying effect. 

    Pinellia is an especially dispersing and drying herb, yet also slippery with a downward draining action (1). Pinellia’s warming effect can be felt upon tasting, as the effect spreads downwards throughout the digestive tract.

    Pinellia (Pinellia ternata)
    Pinellia (Pinellia ternata)
    Pinellia root (Pinellia ternata)

  • What can I use it for?

    Pinellia is primarily used for coughs with thin, watery sputum and a stifling sensation in the chest, or for epigastric and abdominal distention, nausea and vomiting (1). Its dispersing and warming properties can help dry fluids directly, and its slippery nature can help loosen stubborn phlegm and direct it downwards, where it can be eliminated through the urine or the stool.

    Other traditional indications for pinella include nodules, swellings and subjective sensations of distention anywhere in the body, which are perceived as phlegm accumulations. It can also treat insomnia with racing thoughts, which can be understood as a manifestation of phlegm that obstructs the process of the qi turning inward at night (1).

    It can also be used topically on sores, skin ulcers, carbuncles and breast abscesses (2).

  • Into the heart of pinellia

    Pinellia (Pinellia ternata)
    Pinellia (Pinellia ternata)

    The name ban xia (半夏 pronounced “ban-shah”) means “half summer” referring to the time of year around the summer solstice when pinellia tubers can first be harvested (3). This is also the time of year when nature’s qi is moving downwards and inwards, just as the energetic actions of the herb are to direct qi downwards and inwards, countering the upwards and outwards movements of cough and vomiting. This action, along with its dispersing properties, has made pinellia one of the primary herbs for treating dampness and phlegm in Chinese medicine. 

    The Chinese term for phlegm (痰tan) is not a straightforward translation and can refer to much more than the sticky substance that is produced in the lungs during a respiratory infection. It is more closely related to the Ayurvedic concept of phlegm (śleṣman) as an imbalance or corruption of the kapha dosha and waste product of digestion. It was most likely carried into China with Buddhist teachings where it influenced existing concepts of fluid pathology (5). Once imported into Chinese medicine, phlegm was understood as the result of a disruption in fluid metabolism that may accumulate anywhere in the body, cooking until it thickens into something viscous, or even solid, that obstructs normal function, resulting in an array of complex symptoms (6). Phlegm can: 

    • Block the channels resulting in joint pain, swelling and nodules, or cause numbness and paralysis in parts of the body.
    • Accumulate in the stomach leading to loss of appetite, vomiting, distension and epigastric pain.
    • Create both subjective and physical lumps in the throat.
    • Gather in the intestines, where it may cause constipation or diarrhoea.
    • Ascend to the head, obscuring the senses, resulting in dizziness and sensory disturbances.
    • Affect the Heart where it may cause palpitations and unsettle the Spirit leading to insomnia, psychological disorders, and in extreme cases even convulsions and loss of consciousness. 

    This makes pinellia a very important herb, not just for clearing visible phlegm in the chest, but also for treating almost any stubborn, complex presentation by helping to resolve phlegm directly, and the root cause of disrupted fluid metabolism that leads to phlegm.

  • Traditional uses

    Pinellia is renowned for its ability to dry dampness, transform phlegm and cause rebellious qi to descend (1,2). In practical terms, this means that it excels in treating conditions where things that are supposed to go down, such as the breath and food, instead, come back up due to obstruction by dampness or phlegm. 

    Pinellia is also used to dissipate nodules, reduce clumps and disperse stagnation  (1,2). These are other forms of phlegm that have accumulated due to chronic disruption of fluid metabolism and become lodged in a variety of places. Pinellia is often used to treat distension, pain and oppression in the chest and epigastrium, physical nodules in the neck such as goiter and scrofula, or a subjective sensation of a lump in the throat.

    Pinellia is also used topically for sores, ulcers and carbuncles by grinding into a powder (2). Mixed with egg white, it is applied to breast abscesses or cooked with vinegar and gargled to alleviate a swollen tongue.

  • Traditional actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • Traditional energetic actions

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What practitioners say

    Respiratory system

    Respiratory system

    Pinellia is one of the primary Chinese herbs for resolving phlegm-dampness and appears in many formulas for cough and wheezing with phlegm or fluid in the chest, which is creating a stifling sensation. By warming and drying the fluid, while also helping qi to descend, it helps to stop the breath coming back up in the form of a cough, and also helps the phlegm move  down where it can be excreted through the urine and stool (1).

    Digestive system

    Equal to its ability to resolve phlegm in the chest, is its ability to resolve phlegm and dampness in the Stomach and digestive system. This makes it a central herb for treating various digestive complaints, including bloating, loss of appetite, epigastric pain, and distending feelings. A host of simple formulas for nausea and vomiting are provided in the Han Dynasty classic Essentials from the Golden Cabinet (~150–220 CE) which uses pinellia in combination with ginger (Zingiber officinale) for simple vomiting, with ginger and poria (Poria cocos) for vomiting of fluids, or with ginseng and honey for vomiting with fatigue and weakness (6). It also plays a pivotal role in several other formulas that address stomach problems and fluid-related issues.

    Nervous system

    The effect of pinellia on the nervous system underlies many of its other actions, most likely contributing to its antitussive and antiemetic properties, but it is also noted for having a role in calming the nervous system itself (9,10). This has also been recognised since early times with the The Miraculous Pivot (2nd–1st century BCE), a text primarily concerned with acupuncture, recommending treatment for  insomnia with a combination of pinellia and sorghum when the channels are obstructed preventing qi from entering the yin aspects of the body at night (7).

    This use of pinellia has continued to the present day with many formulas that treat psychological and neurological disorders containing pinellia. Since pinellia has a particular focus on resolving phlegm, which originates in prolonged disruption of fluid metabolism, it is especially useful when these disorders are chronic and do not respond to other treatment strategies.

  • Research

    Pinellia (Pinellia ternata)
    Pinellia (Pinellia ternata)

    A review of the research progress on Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Breit.: Botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicity and quality control

    A review was conducted on pinellia rhizome, concluding that it demonstrated in vitro and in vivo antitumor, antitussive, anti-asthmatic and antidiarrhoeal effects, as well as increasing resistance to gastric ulcers. However, it also possessed certain toxicities, including irritant toxicity, cardiotoxicity, hepatotoxicity and embryonic toxicity which could be mitigated by processing and ensuring suitable compatibility with other herbs (10).

    Chinese herbal medicine for coronavirus disease 2019: A systematic review and meta-analysis

    This systematic review looked at the most commonly prescribed herbs for coronavirus during the pandemic. Pinellia ternata was among the top five herbs identified, suggesting the potential for future research. A similar review was performed in Wuhan which also revealed pinellia to be among the top 10 herbs and combinations used in the treatment of Covid-19 (12).

    Medicine for chronic atrophic gastritis: A systematic review, meta- and network pharmacology analysis

    Weng et al. (13) reviewed herbs for chronic atrophic gastritis using network pharmacology to identify the most commonly used herbs. Pinellia ternata was identified among the top six herbs used, suggesting this herb could be a target for further investigation.

    Efficacy and safety of banxia formulae for insomnia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of high-quality randomised controlled trials

    This systematic review evaluated the use of pinellia based formulas for insomnia (14). In 14 high quality RCTs, formulas containing pinellia rhizome could significantly improve insomnia compared to Western medicine, especially when the course is longer than 21 days. They suggested this was due to the sedative and hypnotic fractions of pinellia rhizome, possibly L-arginine which has GABAergic and vasodilatory activity (15).

    Anti-obesity effect of Pinellia ternata extract in Zucker rats

    This study discovered that pinellia ternata water extract caused the browning of white adipose tissue leading to the oxidation of fatty acids within these tissues and an overall anti-obesity effect. This may align with the TCM notion that obesity is a form of phlegm-dampness,extending the traditional Phlegm transforming effect of pinellia to the treatment of obesity (16,17).

  • Did you know?

    Pinellia has been banned in the United States since 2004 due to its ephedrine content (18). Ephedrine is a precursor to amphetamines, and ephedrine containing herbs can be used in the illegal manufacture of these drugs. It is present in quantities of 2.93 μg/g in the raw form, 1.27 μg/g in the traditionally processed product and can be almost completely removed with modern separation techniques (19,20). Although restrictions on other ephedrine containing herbs are in place in the UK, pinellia can be used without restriction (21).

Additional information

  • Botanical description

    Pinellia is a perennial herb growing to a height of 10–35 cm, with mostly spherical metamorphic stems measuring 0.5–4 cm in diameter, along with many fibrous roots under the tuber. Its pearl buds are 0.5–1 cm, and the lower fibrous roots are few and thin. Seedlings of pearl buds or small tubers are mainly single-leaved and ovoid, growing to 2–7 leaves over two years, in three compound leaves with a larger one in the middle. The flowering period is from May to July, while the fruiting period is in August (10).

  • Common names

    Crow-dipper rhizome

  • Safety

    Raw pinellia rhizome is toxic and should be used only for external applications. The toxic dose of the unprepared rhizome when consumed internally is 0.1–2.4 g and causes severe irritation of the mucosal linings of the mouth, throat and gastrointestinal tract, along with toxic effects on the nervous system. Symptoms include dry mouth, numbness of the tongue, gastric discomfort, burning sensation and swelling of the mouth, tongue and throat, salivation, hoarseness, spasms and difficulty breathing (1).

    Treatment of overdose involves grinding 250 g of fresh ginger and mixing with 250 ml of hot water; to be administered at a dose of 20–25 ml every 3–4 hours until symptoms resolve. Egg whites, diluted vinegar, tea and dried ginger are all possible alternatives if fresh ginger is not available (2). 

    One classic source suggests it should be avoided during pregnancy to prevent miscarriage, but its frequent use in the treatment of morning sickness suggests this is unfounded (2). Nonetheless, the use of pinellia during pregnancy is not advised, unless under the guidance of a qualified herbal practitioner.

  • Interactions

    Pinellia rhizome acts synergistically with barbiturates and they should not be taken together (1).

  • Contraindications

    Pinellia should be avoided for use in those with a dry cough or sore throat due to heat, fire or yin deficiency due to its warm, drying nature (2).

    It has been traditionally contraindicated to combine with aconite (1). Aconite is a restricted herb that is only for external use and can only be prescribed by a medical herbalist.

  • Preparations

    Raw pinellia contains needle-like calcium oxalate crystals and lectin proteins which can irritate the mucosal linings of the throat and induce vomiting and abortion (23). In order to prevent this, pinellia is prepared before use. Historically, the simplest method involves rinsing a minimum of 10 times with boiling water to remove the slimy coating that covers the surface, although it is usually prepared using one of the following methods today, which also enhances specific  effects of the herb (10):

      1. Jiang Ban Xia: Boiled in ginger and alum; this form enhances the effects of resolving phlegm and stopping vomiting
      2. Fa Ban Xia: Soaked long-term in liquorice extract and lime; this form enhances the effect of drying dampness and resolving phlegm
      3. Qing Ban Xia: Soaked long-term in alum; this form enhances the effect of resolving phlegm
      4. Zhu Li Ban Xia: A less common form, processed with bamboo sap to reduce its warm, drying qualities, for use with hot conditions (2)

    However, Japanese kampo medicine has traditionally not prepared pinellia, believing that it not only reduces its toxicity but also its efficacy (24). Proponents suggest that decocting pinellia for 30 minutes or more with ginger is sufficient to denature the irritating calcium oxalate crystals (25,26). It is, therefore, possible to find kampo formulas that contain raw pinellia; however, these should only be taken under the guidance of a trained healthcare professional.

  • Dosage

    Infusion / decoction

    3–11.5 g in a decoction, although sometimes much larger doses are used (27). A Qing dynasty text recommends “30 g directs rebelliousness downward, 60 g calms the sleep” (7).

  • Plant parts used

    Rhizome

  • Constituents

    • Raphide: Calcium oxalate — needle-like crystals that irritate the throat and are removed by processing (23).
    • Phenolic acid: Homogentisic acid and its glucoside — potentially responsible for the mucosal irritation caused by raw pinellia (23).
    • Glycoprotein: Lectin — causes agglutination of red blood cells, increasing clotting, but can be permanently denatured by soaking in lime (10).
    • Alkaloids: 
      • Ephedrine — amphetamine with bronchodilatory, antihypotensive and CNS stimulant properties, but also responsible for cardiotoxicity. Found in quantities of 2.93 μg/g in the raw form and 1.27 μg/g in the processed product and can be almost completely removed with modern separation techniques (19,20). This has led to pinellia being banned in the USA since 2004 amid fears it could be used for amphetamine production (18).
      • Choline — a basic constituent of lecithin, a precursor of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and important in many metabolic processes, especially lipid metabolism (28).
      • Cavidine — a selective COX-2 inhibitor anti-inflammatory agent (29,30).
      • Allantoin — used in skincare products to relieve irritation and protect minor cuts, scrapes, and burns (31,32).
    • Flavonoid: Baicalein — a compound with multiple biological activities including antioxidant, hormone antagonist, prostaglandin antagonist, anti-inflammatory, anti-coronaviral, angiogenesis inhibitory, antineoplastic, antibacterial, antifungal, apoptosis inducing and geroprotector (substance that slows the ageing process and extends lifespan) activities that is currently in trials for influenza (29,33).
    • Phenolic aldehyde: 3,4 dihydroxybenzaldehyde and its diglucoside — a known inducer of apoptosis in human leukaemia cells (34).
    • Cerebroside: Pinelloside — an antimicrobial with inhibitory activity against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans (35).
    • Amino acids: Arginine — modulates the GABAergic system and is a precursor of nitric oxide that has vasodilatory activity (15).
    • Amino acids: Alanine, valine and leucine — along with arginine, these are characteristic compounds used to identify Pinellia ternata using thin layer chromatography (TLC) in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia 2020 (10).
Pinellia (Pinellia ternata)

  • Habitat

    Native to China, Japan and Korea (36). The natural habitat of the wild species is grassland, secondary forest, and disturbed ground up to 2,500 m altitude (37). Changes in land use and farming practices have led to changes in the wild microenvironment of pinellia ternata and wild resource populations have been greatly reduced or depleted, making cultivated forms the main source (10).

  • Sustainability

    Green Sustainability Status
    Not currently on risk lists but complete data may be missing on the status of the species. Read more in our sustainability guide.

    Despite the aforementioned changes to habitat, pinellia is not listed on IUCN redlist nor on Natureserve as a threatened species (37,38). Due to declining wild populations, it is recommended to source cultivated forms of the plant where possible to protect the declining species (39).

    Habitat loss and over-harvesting from the wild are two of the biggest threats faced by medicinal plant species. There are an increasing number of well-known herbal medicines at risk of extinction. We must, therefore, ensure that we source our medicines with sustainability in mind.

    The herb supplement industry is growing at a rapid rate and until recent years a vast majority of medicinal plant produce in global trade was of unknown origin. There are some very real and urgent issues surrounding sustainability in the herb industry. These include environmental factors that affect the medicinal viability of herbs, the safety of the habitats that they are taken from, as well as the welfare of workers in the trade.

    The botanical supply chain efforts for improved visibility (transparency and traceability) into verifiably sustainable production sites around the world is now certificated through the emergence of credible international voluntary sustainability standards (VSS). 

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Herbal medicines are often very safe to take; however, their safety and efficacy can be jeopardised by quality issues. So, it is important to buy herbal medicines from a reputable supplier, from sources known to test their herbs to ensure there is no contamination, adulteration or substitution with incorrect plant matter, as well as ensuring that recognised marker compounds are at appropriate levels in the herbs.

    Some important quality assurances to look for are certified organic labelling, the correct scientific/botanical name, and the availability of information from the supplier about ingredient origins. A supplier should be able to tell you where the herbs have come from, what contaminants are not in the herb, and what the primary compounds are.

    Common adulterants include Typhonium flagelliforme and Pinellia pedatisecta, which are both closely related and easily confused (39). They can be differentiated by the fact that T. flagelliforme has tapered rhizomes on one or both ends, the apical depression is usually absent and root scars are scattered over the entire surface rather than localised around the apex. P. pedatisecta may be differentiated if the mature rhizomes are used because they tend to be larger (up to 4 cm diameter, compared to 1.5 cm for the official species) and may have one or more smaller daughter rhizomes developing around the perimeter. Immature rhizomes may be indistinguishable and require laboratory identification.

  • How to grow

    Pinellia ternata root prefers mild, humid climates. It dislikes drought, and high temperatures which should be avoided when cultivating (10).

  • Recipe

    Pinellia root (Pinellia ternata)
    Pinellia root (Pinellia ternata)

    Two-aged decoction

    Two Aged Decoction (Er Chen Tang) is one of the most fundamental formulas for treating phlegm in Chinese medicine and is used as the basis for dozens more recipes that modify this to address specific circumstances (7). Its name derives from the fact that the first two ingredients are usually treated by ageing to reduce toxicity and improve their therapeutic effect.

    On its own, it treats cough with white sputum, distention and a stifling feeling in the chest, nausea or vomiting, but with slight modifications, it has been the basis for the treatment of drooling, diarrhoea, stomach pain, insomnia, hypersomnia, menstrual disorders, infertility, emotional constraint and others. However, due to the drying nature of its ingredients, it should not be used where there is fluid (yin) deficiency.

    Ingredients

    • 5 g Prepared pinellia rhizome (Pinellia ternata)
    • 5 g Aged citrus peel (Citrus reticulata)
    • 3 g Poria (Poria cocos)
    • 1.5 g Honey fried liquorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) 

    How to make a two-aged decoction with pinellia

    Prepare as a decoction by placing all ingredients in a pan and gently simmer for 10 minutes. The original formula decocts the ingredients with fresh ginger and one piece of black plum (Prunus mume), which helps to protect the stomach and fluids when used alone. When using this formula as the basis for developing a more complex treatment strategy, these are usually omitted and other herbs incorporated to achieve the desired effect.

    Pinellia decoction to drain the Epigastrium

    Pinellia decoction to drain the Epigastrium (Ban Xia Xie Xin Tang) is an essential and versatile formula for resolving complex patterns of simultaneous deficiency and constraint that cause dampness and heat to combine in the Stomach. This causes a distended, blocked sensation in the epigastrium with possible nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. It is often used in modern clinics for a variety of digestive disorders, such as gastritis, peptic ulcers, reflux disorder, chronic cholecystitis, diarrhoea, ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, hepatitis and morning sickness, along with other disorders that may fit a damp-heat pattern such as hyperthyroidism, chronic asthma, conjunctivitis, heart disease, amenorrhoea, insomnia, stress and depression (2,7).

    Ingredients

    • 9–12 g Prepared pinellia rhizome
    • 9 g Dried ginger (Zingiber officinale)
    • 9 g Baical skullcap root (Scutellaria baicalensis)
    • 3 g Chinese goldenseal rhizome (Coptis chinensis)
    • 9 g Ginseng root (Panax ginseng)
    • 4–12 pieces Jujube fruit (Ziziphus jujuba )
    • 6–9 g Honey fried liquorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) 

    How to make a pinellia decoction to drain the Epigastrium

    Decoct the ingredients in water and divide into three doses taken over the course of a day.

    This formula can be easily modified to meet a variety of situations:

    • Where the weakness of the digestive system is more pronounced, with undigested food in the stool, the dose of liquorice can be increased to 12 g.
    • Where the epigastric distention is more pronounced and palpably firm, 12 g of fresh ginger can be added to help warm the Stomach and disperse fluids.
    • Another variation uses 12–15 g of raw liquorice instead of the honey fried variety to treat stubborn erosive skin conditions, especially around the mouth, anus and throat. Modern interpreters consider this to be a description of Behcet’s syndrome or sexually transmitted infections (22).
    • Replacing  Chinese goldenseal with Bupleurum (Bupleurum chinense) and swapping dried ginger for fresh ginger, changes the formula to become Lesser Bupleurum Decoction (Xiao Chai Hu Tang) which is a pivotal formula in Chinese medicine, used to treat an even wider range of disorders. It is especially useful in the treatment of “strange diseases” which have unusual presentations that are difficult to match with standard patterns (7). These indicate a disruption of the general dynamic of the body, producing symptoms that may manifest in different ways at different times, and compared to psychosomatic disorders in Western medicine.

  • References

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    4. Köhle, N. A Confluence of Humors: Āyurvedic Conceptions of Digestion and the History of Chinese “Phlegm” (tan 痰). J. Am. Orient. Soc. 2016;136(3), 465. https://doi.org/10.7817/jameroriesoci.136 
    5. Clavey S. Fluid Physiology and Pathology in Traditional Chinese Medicine, 2nd Edition. Churchill Livingstone. 2002.
    6. Sung, YM. Understanding the Jin Gui Yao Lue: A Practical Textbook. Beijing: People’s Medical Publishing House. 2008.
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    14.  Lin YH, Chen C, Zhao X, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Banxia Formulae for Insomnia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of High-Quality Randomized Controlled Trials. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2021;2021:8833168. Published 2021 May 26. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2021/8833168
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    19.  Su T, Tan Y, Tsui MS et al. Metabolomics reveals the mechanisms for the cardiotoxicity of Pinelliae Rhizoma and the toxicity-reducing effect of processing. Sci Rep 2016; 6, 34692. https://www.nature.com/articles/srep34692
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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (eg from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot
Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradich or wasabi, generate warmth when taken. In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage. Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold. .
Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol. .
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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