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Clary sage is a powerfully aromatic, relaxing and tonifying herb

Clary sage

Salvia sclarea

Lamiaceae

A vibrant, strongly aromatic herb with an affinity for the female reproductive and nervous systems, clary sage has been widely loved and used medicinally since Roman times.

Last reviewed 28/08/2025

Sustainability status

Not currently on risk lists but complete data may be missing on the status of the species. Read more in our sustainability guide.

Sustainability Status
Key benefits
  • Hormone regulating
  • Mood-enhancing
  • Relaxing
  • Tonifying

  • How does it feel?

    Fresh clary sage is pungent, earthy and strongly aromatic, and an infusion of the dried flowers and leaves gives a bitter, earthy and cleansing taste. The unique aroma profile of the fresh herb makes it distinct: first, the light, floral, almost lavender-like aromas appear, quickly followed by musky, resinous, animal-like notes — this is echoed in the flavour of the infusion to a degree, which leaves a mild bitterness and astringency in the mouth.

    It has been described as uniting body and soul, spirit and earth, and its duality of flavour and aroma seems to reflect that (5). The essential oil, the most commonly used form of this herb nowadays, has an altogether ‘lighter’ aromatic profile, since many of the larger, earthier-smelling compounds are not carried over into the essential oil via distillation.

    Clary sage (Salvia sclarea)
    Clary sage (Salvia sclarea)
    Clary sage (Salvia sclarea)

  • What can I use it for?

    Clary sage (Salvia sclarea)
    Clary sage (Salvia sclarea)

    Clary sage is mainly used in its essential oil form, either topically, diluted in massage oil, balms and creams or via inhalation, although the young leaves (fresh or dried) can be infused and drunk, or used to flavour cooking (6,7). The essential oil, however, should not be ingested (3).

    The essential oil is used today for a wide range of applications. It is a valuable treatment in the management of conditions resulting from hormonal imbalances or changes, including PMS and some menopausal symptoms (8).

    The oil of clary sage is useful to support the nervous system, and is used widely in the treatment of stress, anxiety, depression and tension (9,10).

    Its pain-relieving, antispasmodic effects make it helpful for relieving muscle cramps or sore muscles (9,10).

    It is a bitter herb, and the fresh or dried leaves and flowers can be infused and drunk as a digestive tea to relieve bloating, flatulence or IBS (9,10).

    It is antimicrobial and an expectorant which makes it helpful in supporting and tonifying the lungs, and supporting recovery from respiratory congestion or infection (7,9).

  • Into the heart of clary sage

    Clary sage (Salvia sclarea)
    Clary sage (Salvia sclarea)

    This is a plant with a particular affinity for the female reproductive system, since it is helpful during menarche, labour and in menopause, working systemically and specifically, primarily on the uterine muscle tissues, nervous system, and muscles (8–11). It has decongestant, astringent properties and is, therefore, particularly useful where there is damp or congestion — especially in pelvic conditions (10).

    Clary sage is considered a tonic herb and is understood in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to strengthen the qi, restore mental debility and as a general tonic (9). In addition to its other uses, it has a regulating effect on both the digestive and respiratory systems, alleviating bloating and IBS as well as supporting the lungs with its mildly expectorant and anti-infective actions (9).

    Its uniqueness lies in the simultaneously restorative, and relaxing actions of its aroma; it is grounding yet uplifting, strengthening yet calming, as well as being both fortifying and clarifying for the mind (9).

    Clary sage is used in meditation as it has a euphoric effect and so can be particularly beneficial for meditation, to calm busy, overthinking minds and those who worry, or experience stress and anxiety (10). Psychologically, it has the ability to stimulate “awareness from within” and break down “hard, protective structures” as well as helping to find one’s true purpose, and in TCM, to connect with the pò, or bodily soul (9,10).

  • Traditional uses

    The traditional use of clary Sage is thought to date back to the Romans who used it internally as an infusion to support the digestive and respiratory systems, as well for support during the menstrual cycle (12). It was, in fact, the most popular tea in the UK before black tea (Camellia sinensis) was imported (7). Historically, it was also applied topically as a poultice (6).

    Its aroma was valued by the Romans, and the plant was used to scent bath houses and clary sage was sometimes used as a hop substitute to flavour beer or wine; it was said to add bitterness and make the brew more intoxicating (6,12). The leaves were also used to imbue wine with a muscatel flavour, hence one of its common names, muscatel sage (6).

  • Traditional actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • Traditional energetic actions

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What practitioners say

    Endocrine systemEndocrine system

    The high (up to 7%) sclareol content of clary sage essential oil makes it a selective oestrogen receptor modulator (SERM) and as such, it has a systemic oestrogen regulatory action, improving menopausal symptoms, dysmenorrhoea or PMS where there is low oestrogen, or severe forms of PMS where oestrogen is dominant or has accumulated, and isn’t being cleared (8,10). Its uterine tonic, relaxant and spasmolytic actions are attributed to its stimulatory effects on the pituitary-gonadal axis, a critical part of the neuroendocrine system that regulates the production of sex hormones, and reproduction (10). This stimulatory activity is understood to be produced by the herb’s linalyl acetate (an ester) content which can be up to ~66.5% (3,10).

    Nervous system

    Clary sage essential oil calms tension, strengthens resilience and supports those who are fatigued emotionally and mentally (9). Its dual ability to both restore and relax makes it helpful in conditions where there is tension and fatigue, such as ADHD, nervous tension, depression and anxiety (10). This is in part due to its linalool (an alcohol) content, which shows anxiolytic and relaxant effects in humans on inhalation (13).  Its analgesic action also makes it helpful for treating headaches and migraines (9).

    Musculoskeletal system

    The analgesic, antispasmodic actions of clary sage essential oil on both smooth and striated muscle tissue make it helpful for the treatment of spasmodic musculoskeletal conditions, including fibromyalgia, aching legs and general muscular stiffness (9,10). Its analgesic properties can be in part attributed to its high borneol (an alcohol) content (3,10).

  • Research

    Clary sage (Salvia sclarea)
    Clary sage (Salvia sclarea)

    Changes in 5-hydroxytryptamine and cortisol plasma levels in menopausal women after inhalation of clary sage oil

    Clary sage has been shown to both increase 5-HTP (serotonin precursor) production and lower cortisol in a small study of 22 menopausal women, some of whom experienced depressive symptoms; the change rate in cortisol levels was greater in women with depressive symptoms when compared with normal groups. The difference was statistically significant (11,14).

    Pain relief assessment by aromatic essential oil massage on outpatients with primary dysmenorrhea: a randomized, double-blind clinical trial

    A 2012 randomised, double-blind clinical trial was conducted amongst  48 patients experiencing menstrual pain. Pain duration was significantly reduced from 2.4 to 1.8 days after aromatherapy intervention (abdominal massage of an essential oil cream blend including Lavandula officinalis, Salvia sclarea and Origanum vulgare) in the essential oil group. The essential oil blend contained four analgesic components that totalled 79.29% of the formula; researchers attributed the analgesic effects to these constitutes, two of which were linalyl acetate and linalool (15).

    Effect of aromatherapy on symptoms of dysmenorrhea in college students: A randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial

    A 2006 randomised placebo-controlled trial studied the effect of abdominal aromatherapy massage with clary sage on 67 female college students experiencing moderate to severe menstrual cramps. An essential oil blend including clary sage and diluted in almond oil (Prunus amygdalus) was applied topically to the experimental group via abdominal massage. Menstrual cramps were significantly lowered in the aromatherapy group compared with the other two groups at both post-test time points, which suggests that a combination of massage and essential oils (including clary sage) may be effective in reducing abdominal cramp severity (16).

    Effect of aromatherapy for postoperative pain management in the postanesthesia recovery room: A systematic review

    A 2025 systematic review found that using aromatherapy (including clary sage) was effective in relieving pain in a post anaesthesia recovery setting. Studies also observed reductions in heart rate, blood pressure, nausea and vomiting, and decreased need for administration of antiemetics. The review did not solely focus on clary sage, nor detail the methods of application of the essential oils used (17).

  • Did you know?

    Its name, clary, comes from the latin “clarus” meaning clear. Historically, its seeds were used to clear mucus from the eyes, giving it the name “clear-eye”, from which the modern name, clary, was derived (18,19).

Additional information

  • Botanical description

    Clary sage is a biennial perennial, growing up to approximately 1 m tall, with dusty-green, scented, wrinkled, waxy and soft-textured oblong leaves, up to 20 cm long. The plant has tall racemes of pale purple to pink flowers, and mauve bracts. It flowers in late spring or summer (24).

  • Common names

    • Clary
    • Clear-eye
    • Europe sage
    • Muscatel sage

  • Safety

    Clary sage essential oil is non-toxic, and largely non-irritant; however, it can have moderate skin sensitising effects in some people (3,10). It should be applied at a maximum dermal dilution of 0.25% of the total blend (3).

    Some sources recommend avoiding the use of clary sage essential oil while driving or if drinking alcohol due to its possible narcotic effect (20).

    Clary sage is commonly touted as an essential oil to be avoided during pregnancy, owing to its actions as an emmanagogue (18,20). Despite this concern, there is no general consensus against its use nor clinical evidence finding that it is unsafe during pregnancy, with some authorities (Tisserand and Yong) expressing no caution against its use (3,7). Similarly, there is no evidence confirming its safety during pregnancy, so its use during pregnancy is not recommended.

  • Interactions

    Alcohol may potentiate narcotic effects (18,20). No other interactions identified (3,9,18).

  • Contraindications

    Avoid use in cases of hormone-dependent cancers: since clary sage is a SERM and the interactions of SERMs with other cancer treatments are not well understood (18,21).

  • Preparations

    Topical preparation of clary sage

    Essential oil (inhaled via diffusion or blended into creams and oils and massaged into the skin), including

    • Diffuser blend: 5 drops in 50 ml of water
    • Massage oil: diluted to 2%
    • Liniment: diluted up to 10% 

    Fresh herb preparation as poultice (less commonly used nowadays)

    Internal preparation of clary sage

    • Fresh or dried herb: Herbal infusion (less commonly used nowadays)
    • Essential oil: Gel caps* 2–3 drops of essential oil in olive oil

    * UK aromatherapists do not prescribe the use of essential oils internally, and it is uncommon for herbalists to prescribe clary sage products for internal use. Gel caps of clary sage essential oil are possible to make in theory but only seed oil capsules appear to be available commercially as Omega-3 supplements – but other herbs, foods and supplements are more commonly used for this (22).

  • Dosage

    Use one teaspoon of the dried herb to one cup (~250–300 ml) of hot water. Steep covered for 10 minutes so the volatile compounds do not escape (23).

    Other clary sage preparations

    • Diffuser blend: 5 g (drops) in 50 ml of water; diffused in a room
    • Massage oil: Diluted up to 2% in a base oil for a full-body massage
    • Liniment: Diluted up to 10% in a base oil; used for acute injuries, locally only
      (7,10)

  • Plant parts used

    Flowering tops

  • Constituents

    • Esters: Linalyl acetate (~66.5%)
    • Alcohols: Linalool (~8.9%), sclareol (~2.4%)
    • Monoterpenes: Germacrene D (~9.4%)
    • Aldehydes: Caryophyllenal (unstated % but minimal)
    • Ketones: Thujone (unstated % but minimal)
      Oxides (~0.8%): including 1,8 cineole
      (3,18)
Clary sage (Salvia sclarea)

  • Habitat

    Native to much of the Mediterranean, southern and eastern Europe, north Africa, central Asia and the Middle East, clary sage grows well in sunny aspects and free-draining soil and has been introduced to parts of North America and the UK where it can grow well, and is mostly grown ornamentally, for its aroma, and/or as a pollinator-friendly plant (1,24,25).

  • Sustainability

    Not currently on risk lists but complete data may be missing on the status of the species. Read more in our sustainability guide.Clary sage is currently rated LC (least concern) by IUCN, not rated by NatureServe (it is classed as “Exotic”) and is unlisted on both the CITES database and the American Botanical Council. (26–28).

    Clary sage can be grown well in its native and introduced ranges (1,3). However, since it is primarily cultivated for its essential oil, measures should be implemented to ensure crop health and sustainable growing and harvesting.

    These can include:

    • Alternating crops and crop rotation. This maintains soil health and prevents degradation (29).
    • Using natural pest control and using organic or biodynamic farming methods (29).
    • Careful harvesting of leaves and flowers for healthy future plant populations (29).
    • Extracting essential oils in a more traditional way, macerating small quantities of the home-grown herb in base oil to extract its properties, instead of distilling large quantities of essential oils.
    • Making use of new advancements in green technology to enhance efficiency of extraction of medicinal compounds (30).

  • Quality control

    Its essential oil is classed as being at low risk of adulteration, but it’s a good idea to source it from suppliers that work directly with small, organic farms where possible to ensure high quality (1,3,29).

    Herbal medicines are often very safe to take; however, their safety and efficacy can be jeopardised by quality issues. So, it is important to buy herbal medicines from a reputable supplier, from sources known to test their herbs to ensure there is no contamination, adulteration or substitution with incorrect plant matter, as well as ensuring that recognised marker compounds are at appropriate levels in the herbs.

    Some important quality assurances to look for are certified organic labelling, the correct scientific/botanical name, and the availability of information from the supplier about ingredient origins. A supplier should be able to tell you where the herbs have come from, what contaminants are not in the herb, and what the primary compounds are.

  • How to grow

    Sow seeds indoors in early spring, then transplant to their final growing position before autumn. Alternatively you can sow the seeds in late summer and let them overwinter in a greenhouse, then plant them out in spring. The seeds require some light to germinate and must be kept moist. Clary sage is a biennial and will typically flower in its second year (31).

  • Recipe

    Clary sage essential oil (Salvia sclarea)
    Clary sage essential oil (Salvia sclarea)

    Premenstrual mood-boosting spray

    Spritz this mist onto a tissue or around your space for a premenstrual mood boost.

    Equipment

    • Small funnel
    • Teaspoon
    • Glass measuring cup up to 100 ml
    • 100 ml spray bottle (brown or blue glass is ideal)

    Ingredients

    • 100 ml vodka or grain-neutral spirit (minimum of 35% ABV)
    • 30 g (drops) of clary sage (Salvia sclarea) essential oil
    • 20 g (drops) of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil
    • 10 g (drops) of bergamot (Citrus bergamia) essential oil

    How to make a clary sage mood-boosting spray

    • Measure out 100 ml of vodka into your beaker.
    • Add the essential oils and mix well with your teaspoon until the oils are fully dispersed.
    • Use your funnel to decant the mixture into your spray bottle and close the lid.
    • Spritz liberally around your space or onto a tissue to inhale when you need a pre-menstrual mood lift.

    Please note: This is not designed to be sprayed directly onto the skin, so do take care when using.

  • References

    1. Salvia sclarea L. Plants of the World Online (POWO). Accessed August 21, 2025. http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:457210-1  
    2. Salvia sclarea clary Annual Biennial/RHS. Accessed August 21, 2025. http://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/41249/salvia-sclarea/details
    3. Tisserand R, Young R. Essential Oil Saftey. 2nd ed. Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2014. 
    4. Salvia sclarea – Plant Finder. Accessed August 21, 2025. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=281426
    5. Owen F, Hughes N. Wild Enchantments. Quintessence Press; 2024. 
    6. Salvia sclarea Clary, Europe sage, Clary Sage PFAF Plant Database. Accessed August 21, 2025. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Salvia+sclarea
    7. Martin I. Aromatherapy for Massage Practitioners. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007. 
    8. Price S, Price L. Aromatherapy for Health Professionals. 4th ed. Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2011. 
    9. Mojay G. Aromatherapy for Healing the Spirit: A Guide to Restoring Emotional and Mental Balance through Essential Oils. Gaia Books Limited; 1999. 
    10. Holmes P. Aromatica. Vol 1. Singing Dragon; 2016. 
    11. Battaglia S. The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy, Vol. III, Scent and Psyche. Vol 3. 3rd ed. Black Pepper Creative Pty. Ltd.; 2021. 
    12. Oshadhi. An Introduction to Clary sage essential oil. Oshadhi Essential Oils. October 26, 2023. Accessed August 21, 2025. https://oshadhi.co.uk/articles/an-introduction-to-clary-sage-essential-oil/
    13. Sugawara Y, Hara C, Tamura K, et al. Sedative effect on humans of inhalation of essential oil of linalool:: Sensory evaluation and physiological measurements using optically active linalools. Anal Chim Acta. 1998;365(1):293-299.
    14. Lee KB, Cho E, Kang YS. Changes in 5-hydroxytryptamine and cortisol plasma levels in menopausal women after inhalation of clary sage oil. Phytother Res PTR. 2014;28(11):1599-1605. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.5163
    15. Ou MC, Hsu TF, Lai AC, Lin YT, Lin CC. Pain relief assessment by aromatic essential oil massage on outpatients with primary dysmenorrhea: a randomized, double-blind clinical trial. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 2012;38(5):817-822. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-0756.2011.01802.x
    16. Han SH, Hur MH, Buckle J, Choi J, Lee MS. Effect of aromatherapy on symptoms of dysmenorrhea in college students: A randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Altern Complement Med N Y N. 2006;12(6):535-541. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2006.12.535
    17. Biachi FB, de Oliveira Faria MF, Oliveira RA, de Brito Poveda V, Rizzo Gnatta J. Effect of Aromatherapy for Postoperative Pain Management in the Postanesthesia Recovery Room: A Systematic Review. J Perianesth Nurs. 2025;40(4):1016-1023.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jopan.2024.09.011
    18. Caddy R. Essential Oils in Colour. 7th ed. Amberwood Publishing Ltd; 1997. 
    19. Chevallier A. Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine. 3rd ed. Dorling Kindersley; 2016. 
    20. 20. Clary Sage Essential Oil: Benefits, Uses & Insights. Accessed August 21, 2025. https://www.aromaweb.com/essential-oils/clary-sage-essential-oil.php
    21. Cancer and dietary supplements. Royal Marsden Patient Information Library. Accessed August 21, 2025. https://patientinfolibrary.royalmarsden.nhs.uk/cancer-and-dietary-supplements
    22. Omega-3 foods and your heart. British Heart Foundation. Accessed August 21, 2025. https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/heart-matters-magazine/nutrition/omega-3s-and-your-heart
    23. Clary sage herb. Sons of Asgard. Accessed August 21, 2025. https://www.sonsofasgard-shop.co.uk/clary-sage-herb
    24. Salvia sclarea | clary Annual Biennial/RHS. Accessed August 21, 2025. http://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/41249/salvia-sclarea/details
    25. Clary sage (Salvia sclarea): benefits, uses, and how to grow it. Accessed August 21, 2025. https://www.gardenia.net/plant/salvia-sclarea-clary-sage
    26. CITES. Accessed August 21, 2025. https://cites.org/eng/search?search_api_fulltext=sage
    27. Other Monographs and Articles. In: Other Monographs and Articles – American Botanical Council. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/other-monographs-and-articles/
    28. Group) SK (Cave IS. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Salvia sclarea. IUCN Red List Threat Species. Published online June 12, 2013. Accessed August 21, 2025. https://www.iucnredlist.org/en
    29. Focus on Clary sage essential oil. Oshadhi Essential Oils. Accessed August 21, 2025. https://oshadhi.co.uk/kb/all-about-clary-sage-essential-oil/
    30. 30. Putra NR, Yustisia Y, Heryanto RB, et al. Advancements and challenges in green extraction techniques for Indonesian natural products: A review. South Afr J Chem Eng. 2023;46:88-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajce.2023.08.002
    31. Buy Clary sage seeds certified organic. Accessed August 21, 2025. https://earthsongseeds.co.uk/shop/herbs/sage-clary/

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (eg from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot
Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradich or wasabi, generate warmth when taken. In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage. Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold. .
Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol. .
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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