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Kava relieves anxiety and aids relaxation

Kava

Piper methysticum

Piperaceae

Kava is a root from the Pacific Islands that is effective to relieve tension and anxiety, but is banned in the UK and EU.

Last reviewed 10/09/2025

Sustainability status

Not currently on risk lists but complete data may be missing on the status of the species. Read more in our sustainability guide.

Sustainability Status
Key benefits
  • Anxiolytic
  • Mild sedative
  • Analgesic with local anaesthetic effect
  • Mmuscle relaxant
  • Anti-inflammatory
  • Anticonvulsant
  • Anti-ischaemic

  • How does it feel?

    Kava has a silky, soapy texture and produces an immediate numbing effect in the mouth. The water-extract of kava is bitter and slightly acrid.

    Kava (Piper methysticum)
    Kava root (Piper methysticum)
    Kava root (Piper methysticum)

  • What can I use it for?

    Kava is mainly used for its relaxing properties to reduce anxiety and tension, aid with sleep, and to promote a feeling of wellbeing and socialising. It is particularly effective to relieve nervous tension and restlessness (1,2), and research has shown potential for kava to be neuroprotective via reducing oxidative stress and inflammation (3). 

    It is bitter and has analgesic, muscle relaxant, anti-inflammatory and diuretic properties, so has been used historically to treat bronchitis, rheumatism, toothache, urinary tract infections, dyspepsia, dysuria, nocturia and neuralgia (4).

  • Into the heart of kava

    Kava (Piper methysticum)
    Kava (Piper methysticum)

    Kava has been used in traditional South Pacific cultures for more than 2000 years. It plays a role in formal ceremonies in Vanuatu, Tonga, Fiji and Pohnpei, where it is exchanged and consumed to promote connection through its ability to relax and provide a sense of wellbeing (5). Kava is traditionally served during significant events, such as weddings and to welcome guests, and kava is exchanged as a gift on special occasions and to ask for forgiveness (6). The relaxing effects have led to it being used as an alternative to benzodiazepines to treat anxiety (1). 

    Despite being banned in the UK and EU, kava is available in Australasia, the Pacific Islands and the US. Kava bars, in which kava is drunk socially, originated in New Caledonia, but are now found in Hawaii, other Pacific islands and across the US. The ability of kava to promote communication alongside relaxation has led to it being a desirable alternative to alcohol.

    While kava is mainly known for its relaxing effects on the nervous system, low rates of cancer in men in the Pacific combined with in vitro studies have shown that it may have an antitumour effect (6).

  • Traditional uses

    Kava root (Piper methysticum)
    Kava root (Piper methysticum)

    Traditionally the dried root and basal stump is pounded, chewed or grated, then made into a cold-water infusion in a wooden bowl known as a kumete. During a ceremony or kava-drinking session, kava is served in cups made from half coconut shells known as bilo or ipu (1,7). More than three litres of the cold-water infusion are typically drunk per person during a six-hour faikava (kava-drinking) session, during which there are established cultural protocols (1). 

    In the Pacific Islands, kava drinking was once reserved for male royalty and priests during rituals on social, ceremonial and religious occasions, as well as being used medicinally. Since around the 1970s or 80s, however, it has expanded to be used throughout the population for social and relaxation purposes, and to help with anxiety and sleep (8). Kava is so much a part of the culture of many Pacific Islands, that the flag of the state of Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia has a kava cup in the centre, and the watermark on Western Samoa’s paper currency was a ceremonial kava bowl (9).

    When used over a long period of time, kava causes a scaly dermopathy, which has been utilised by healers in Pacific Islands to treat other skin complaints such as fungal infections and psoriasis. Healers advised people to drink kava until they developed kava dermopathy, then when the kava was stopped and the scales shed away, the original skin condition would also resolve (9).

  • Traditional actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

  • Traditional energetic actions

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What practitioners say

    Nervous systemNervous system

    Kava is most commonly used for its sedative and anxiolytic effects, and kavalactones have been found to interact with the GABAergic system (10). Low micromolar concentrations of kavalactones enhance the binding of ligands to the GABAA receptor, but they don’t bind directly to the benzodiazepine binding site (7). Kavalactones also inhibit voltage-gated ion channels (Na+ and Ca+2), block the reuptake of noradrenaline, and inhibit monoamine oxidase (MAO)B (7).  These actions are likely to contribute to anxiolytic and sedative effects, as well as the local anaesthetic effect observed when kava is consumed.

    Kavalactones such as kavain have been found to have a neuroprotective effect. This is likely due to blocking of voltage-gated ion channels, as well as activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2), which controls detoxifying antioxidant enzymes and is involved in the regulation of inflammation (3,7).

    Before the kava ban in 2002, the German E-commission monograph recommended kava for “nervous anxiety, tension and restlessness”, and an observational trial of 156 patients found significant and clinically significant benefits in these conditions (2).

    Musculoskeletal system

    Kava has muscle relaxing and analgesic effects, which explains its history of use in rheumatism. The kavalactone kavain has been found to inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme, contributing to an anti-inflammatory effect. A direct analgesic effect that occurs in the mouth on drinking kava contributes to its use for neuralgia and potential use in dentistry.

    Urinary system

    Kava is a diuretic and has been found to relieve the burning and pain from urinary tract infections (4).

  • Research

    Kava root (Piper methysticum)
    Kava root (Piper methysticum)

    Medicinal herbs for the treatment of anxiety: A systematic review and network meta-analysis

    A systematic review and meta-analysis of 12 medicinal herbs found that kava was an effective and well-tolerated anxiolytic, but may not be effective in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. The use of kava to reduce anxiety was consistent with an interaction of kava with the GABAA receptor, as well as its ability to block voltage-gated cation channels and suppress thromboxane A2 synthesis (11).

    Neuroimaging insights: Kava’s (Piper methysticum) effect on dorsal anterior cingulate cortex GABA in generalized anxiety disorder

    Administration of kava extract (standardised to 120mg kavalactones twice daily) for 8 weeks reduced levels of GABA neurotransmitter in the dorsal anterior cingulate area of the brain. GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces excitation in the brain and is often raised in specific areas of the brains of those with anxiety (10).

    The impact of traditional kava (Piper methysticum) use on cognition: Implications for driver fitness

    The cognitive function of 20 kava drinkers during a traditional faikava was compared with 19 control non-kava-consuming participants. The main purpose was to determine whether it is safe for people to drive following consumption of kava at levels consumed during traditional ceremonies. There was no significant difference in focus, accuracy, timing perception, plasticity and fatigue between kava drinkers and non-drinkers. However, temporal order judgement was significantly impaired following six hours of kava consumption. Temporal order judgement determines whether the brain is able to keep track of the order of events, which is involved with executive function, which may impact on whether users can drive safely. During the study, speech was slurred and participants showed slower psychomotor responses. This contrasts with studies on the use of kava extracts and capsules at lower doses, which have often shown either no effect or an improvement in concentration (1).

    Kava extract for treating anxiety

    This Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis included evidence from 12 randomised-controlled trials of the use of kava to treat anxiety. Meta-analysis found a significant effect of kava on reducing anxiety as measured by the Hamilton Anxiety scale (HAM-A). The study also found that use of kava for up to 24 weeks was safe. Effectiveness was found to be similar to benzodiazepines without side effects that benzodiazepines cause such as sedation, amnesia and development of tolerance (12).

  • Did you know?

    In 2002, a German high court banned the use of kava, with subsequent withdrawal in all EU countries, due to safety concerns following a number of case reports of liver toxicity. The ban was overturned in 2014, as concerns were considered to not be proportional to the safety evidence available; many of the cases of liver toxicity were linked to the use of other medications or the use of acetone extracts of the plant rather than the traditional water extracts or more commonly used ethanolic extracts.

    However, in 2019 the ban was reinstated due to a lack of evidence for efficacy of ethanolic extracts in generalised anxiety disorder, rather than continuing concerns for safety (13). Kava continues to be safely used recreationally or in dietary supplements in the US, Australasia and Pacific Islands.

Additional information

  • Botanical description

    It is thought that Piper methysticum is a cultivated variant of the wild Piper wichmannii C. DC. (7). Kava is a member of the Piperaceae family and is a perennial or rhizomatous geophyte that grows primarily in the wet tropical biome. It thrives at altitudes of between 150 and 300 m above sea level and grows in upland forests (8). The plants used most commonly today are sterile decaploids raised by small holders throughout the Pacific Islands (17). 

    The shrub grows to 2–3 m in height with jointed stems and large heart-shaped leaves (7,9). The leaves are alternate and cordate with a wavy entire margin and an abrupt acute point. The petiole is about 2.5cm long, dilated at the base with linear, erect stipules, and prominent veins diverging from the base of the leaf blade. Flowers are small apetalous and on slender spikes (4).

    There are multiple cultivars of kava, including; noble, two-day (tudei), medicinal, and wichmannii. The noble cultivar is higher in kavain and has been classified as the safest cultivar offering predictable effects and higher quality anxiolytic properties. The two-day cultivar has higher levels of dihydromethysticin and dihydrokavain and is associated with causing headaches and nausea. Medicinal and wichmannii cultivars have not been studied as extensively and may be more likely to be used by traditional Pacific herbalists than for everyday use (5).

  • Common names

    • Kava kava
    • Awa
    • Ava
    • Kava pepper
    • Intoxicating pepper
    • Yangona

  • Safety

    Kava should not be used in pregnancy or when breastfeeding, except under the guidance of a qualified healthcare practitioner (14). Women with a history of kava use were 2.5 times more likely to give birth to a baby with low birth weight in a population-based survey in the Solomon Islands, however, animal studies have shown no concerns for the use of kava during pregnancy (14). Kava was not traditionally used by women in the Pacific Islands before the 1970s, so there is a historical lack of data.

    A reversible skin toxicity reaction known as kava dermopathy or kavaism has been observed in heavy users of kava (7). It presents as a systemic dermatitis and erythema that causes a dry, scaly and yellow discolouration (5).

    Hepatotoxicity has been observed. The use of acetone as a solvent to produce kava extracts, as well as the use of cultivars not traditionally used due to their propensity to cause headaches and kava “hangovers”, as well as overstating the role of kava in many of the liver toxicity case reports are thought to be key to the increase in safety concerns in the early 2000s (13). Only one case of liver toxicity with a possible or probable cause by traditionally prepared kava has been reported. There has also been one case of an immuno-allergic reaction to an ethanolic extract of a traditional noble cultivar. All remaining case reports have involved other medication likely to have contributed to the liver toxicity, or used acetone extracts of kava. There have been at least 81 clinical studies with kava extract preparations or isolated kavalactones in 14,114 individuals, which have consistently shown good safety (13).

    Kavalactones are lipophilic and six of the kavalactones, kavain, dihydrokavain, methysticin, dihydromethysticin, yangonin and desmethoxyyangonin, are responsible for 96% of the pharmacological activity. Yangonin has been found to have hepatoprotective activity (5). For this reason, using solvents other than water for extraction or altering the ratio of kavalactones present in the final product in some way is likely to impact on efficacy and safety.

    There have been four cases of dyskinesia due to kava use, including dystonia, tonic head rotation, twisting of the trunk and an increased duration of “off” periods in a parkinsonian patient. Symptoms resolved with the discontinuation of kava and treatment with a cholinergic antagonist, which indicates a dopamine antagonist effect of kava (7).

  • Interactions

    Kava may enhance the sedation caused by benzodiazepines, barbiturates or other sedatives. There is a case report of confusion and auditory and visual hallucinations in a woman taking benzodiazepines long term who started taking kava alongside them, however, this is contrasted by a clinical trial in which a combination of kava and bromazepam showed no issues or benefits to wellbeing (14).

    Kava inhibits enteric cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP3A4, so will increase the concentration of drugs such as midazolam that are taken orally and metabolised by CYP3A4 (15). It has been found in some studies to increase gene expression of CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2C2, CYP3A1, and CYP3A3, but decrease gene expression of CYP2C23 and CYP2C40 (5). However, a clinical trial of 2 g of kava extract showed no effect on CYP1A2, 2D6 and 3A4 (14).

  • Contraindications

    Kava should not be used during pregnancy or lactation unless supervised by a qualified healthcare professional. Due to the rare incidences of liver toxicity, people with liver problems, those who are taking any medications or those who regularly use alcohol should seek advice before use. Those taking large doses of kava should avoid driving, due to impairment in executive function seen following long, traditional kava ceremonies (1,14).

  • Preparations

    • Recreational drink in kava bars
    • Cold-water infusion
    • Aqueous or ethanolic extract in capsule or tablet form

  • Dosage

    • Tincture (ratio 1:2| %): 3–6 ml per day (16)
    • Fluid extract (1:1 | 0%): 42–84 ml/week (16)
    • Infusion/decoction: 1.5–3 g per day of dried root (16)
    • Other preparations: Standardised preparations containing 100–200mg of kavalactones daily

  • Plant parts used

    The large rhizome and lateral roots are used medicinally.

  • Constituents

    • Kavalactones (Pyrone derivatives): Kavain, dihyrdokavain, methysticin, dihydromethysticin, yangonin, desmethoxyyangonin
    • Flavonoids: Flavokavains
    • Alkaloids: Pipermethysticine, pipermethystine (only found in the aerial parts)
Kava (Piper methysticum)

  • Habitat

    Kava is native to Vanuatu and Santa Cruz Island, but has been introduced to Caroline Island, Cook Island, Fiji, Hawaii, Marquesas, Niue, Samoa, Society Island, Tonga, and Wallis-Futuna Island (18).

  • Sustainability

    Green Sustainability Status
    Not currently on risk lists but complete data may be missing on the status of the species. Read more in our sustainability guide.

    According to the Angiosperm Extinction Risk Predictions v1, kava is not believed to be threatened (18).

    According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants Status: This taxon has not yet been assessed.

    Due to the rarity of female flowers, kava cannot reproduce sexually and relies on humans propagating via stem cuttings (19). 

    Habitat loss and over-harvesting from the wild are two of the biggest threats faced by medicinal plant species. There are an increasing number of well-known herbal medicines at risk of extinction. We must, therefore, ensure that we source our medicines with sustainability in mind.

    The herb supplement industry is growing at a rapid rate and until recent years a vast majority of medicinal plant produce in global trade was of unknown origin. There are some very real and urgent issues surrounding sustainability in the herb industry. These include environmental factors that affect the medicinal viability of herbs, the safety of the habitats that they are taken from, as well as the welfare of workers in the trade.

    The botanical supply chain efforts for improved visibility (transparency and traceability) into verifiably sustainable production sites around the world is now certificated through the emergence of credible international voluntary sustainability standards (VSS). 

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Herbal medicines are often very safe to take; however, their safety and efficacy can be jeopardised by quality issues. So, it is important to buy herbal medicines from a reputable supplier, from sources known to test their herbs to ensure there is no contamination, adulteration or substitution with incorrect plant matter, as well as ensuring that recognised marker compounds are at appropriate levels in the herbs.

    Some important quality assurances to look for are certified organic labelling, the correct scientific/botanical name, and the availability of information from the supplier about ingredient origins. A supplier should be able to tell you where the herbs have come from, what contaminants are not in the herb, and what the primary compounds are.

  • How to grow

    Kava will grow in a warm, humid atmosphere, with indirect sunlight in a well-drained, but moist, loamy soil. In the UK, a shady area within a conservatory or heated greenhouse would be ideal. 

    Kava is cultivated by propagation from stem cuttings (6).

  • References

    1. Aporosa S’, Ballard H, Pandey R, McCarthy MJ. The impact of traditional kava (Piper methysticum) use on cognition: Implications for driver fitness. J Ethnopharmacol. 2022;291:115080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2022.115080
    2. Kuchta K, Hladikova M, Thomsen M, Nahrstedt A, Schmidt M. Kava (Piper methysticum) Extract for the Treatment of Nervous Anxiety, Tension and Restlessness. Drug Res (Stuttg). 2021;71(2):83-93. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1268-7135
    3. Pedrosa ECGA, Bezerra APC, Costa IM, Pinheiro F, Guzen FP. Neuroprotective profile of Piper Methysticum (Kava Kava) and its effects on the Central Nervous System: a systematic review. J Pharmacological Chem Biol. 2020 2(1):55-84.
    4. Felter HW, Uri-Lloyd J. Piper methysticum. – kava-kava. King’s American Dispensary. 1898. [Accessed online 30/08/2025]. https://www.henriettes-herb.com/eclectic/kings/piper-meth.html
    5. Soares RB, Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Oliveira NG. An Updated Review on the Psychoactive, Toxic and Anticancer Properties of Kava. J Clin Med. 2022;11(14):4039. Published 2022 Jul 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11144039
    6. Bian T, Corral P, Wang Y, et al. Kava as a Clinical Nutrient: Promises and Challenges. Nutrients. 2020;12(10):3044. Published 2020 Oct 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12103044
    7. Spinella, M. The psychopharmacology of herbal medicine: Plant drugs that alter mind, brain, and behavior. 2001. The MIT Press; Cambridge, Massachusetts. 
    8. Sakai M, Nakazawa M. The Current Use of Sakau (Kava) in Pohnpei Island, Federated States of Micronesia. Hawaii J Health Soc Welf. 2022;81(7):179-184.
    9. Norton SA. Herbal medicines in Hawaii from tradition to convention. Hawaii Med J. 1998;57(1):382-386.
    10. Savage K, Sarris J, Hughes M, et al. Neuroimaging Insights: Kava’s (Piper methysticum) Effect on Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex GABA in Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Nutrients. 2023;15(21):4586. Published 2023 Oct 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15214586
    11. Zhang W, Yan Y, Wu Y, et al. Medicinal herbs for the treatment of anxiety: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Pharmacol Res. 2022;179:106204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106204
    12. Pittler MH, Ernst E. Kava extract for treating anxiety.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;2003(1):CD003383. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003383
    13. Thomsen M, Schmidt M. Health policy versus kava (Piper methysticum): Anxiolytic efficacy may be instrumental in restoring the reputation of a major South Pacific crop. J Ethnopharmacol. 2021;268:113582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.113582
    14. AHPA. Piper methysticum G. Forst. Botanical Safety Handbook, 2nd Ed. 2024. American Herbal Products Association.
    15. Nascimento ML, do Nascimento SB, Lima ESP, et al. Evaluation of the Effects of Extracts Containing Valeriana officinalis and Piper methysticum on the Activities of Cytochrome P450 3A and P-Glycoprotein. Planta Med. 2024;90(10):792-800. https://doi.org/1055/a-2360-4808
    16. Mills S, Bone K. Principles & Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine (1st Ed). 1999 Churchill Livingstone; Edinburgh, UK.
    17. Evans WC. Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy (15th Ed). 2002. WB Saunders: London, UK.
    18. Kew Gardens. Piper methysticum G. Forst. Plants of the World Online. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:198437-2 [Accessed online 21/08/2025].
    19. United Plant Savers. Kava – Piper methysticum. https://unitedplantsavers.org/kava-kava-piper-methysticum/ [Accessed online 30/08/2025].

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (eg from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot
Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradich or wasabi, generate warmth when taken. In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage. Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold. .
Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol. .
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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