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Wintergreen is an excellent topical pain-relieving herb

Wintergreen

Gaultheria procumbens, G. fragrantissima

Ericaceae

An evergreen, Native American shrub in the heath (blueberry) family, wintergreen leaves have a long history of use for pain, gastrointestinal and respiratory conditions and as an antiseptic.

Last reviewed 23/07/2025

Sustainability status

At risk from overharvesting and habitat loss. Read more in our sustainability guide.

Sustainability Status
Key benefits
  • Pain relief for muscles and joints
  • Blood-thinning and decongesting
  • Alleviates bruising
  • Cooling
  • Relieves inflammation
  • Relaxes smooth muscle
  • Relieves spasms
  • Decongestant and clearing for the lungs

  • How does it feel?

    Nowadays, only the essential oil from distillation of the leaves of wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens, G. fragrantissima) is recommended for use, and solely externally at a maximum dilution of 2.4%, due to the high toxicity risk of ingesting methyl salicylate (1–3).

    The leaves may be described as aromatic, astringent, and pungent; whereas the berries, though they share the astringency of the leaves, instead have a sharp and sour quality.

    Wintergreen has a unique, powerful aroma, combining its strong, medicinal scent with fruity and woody notes. Whilst the aroma is potent and stimulating on inhalation, when applied topically it has a cooling, soothing and pain-relieving effect. This quality makes wintergreen of particular help for treating sore muscles and joints (4,5,7).

    Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens)
    Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens)
    Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens)

  • What can I use it for?

    In modern Western herbal medicine, wintergreen is used externally only, primarily to treat both musculoskeletal and neurological pain and inflammation, and in traditional energetic terms, to clear heat (4). 

    As well as via the skin during topical use, some of the volatile (essential) oil is absorbed via the olfactory system (the sensory system that governs our sense of smell) when used diluted in a massage oil blend; however, wintergreen is not suitable for diffusing or as a steam inhalation (4).

  • Into the heart of wintergreen

    Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens)
    Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens)

    Limited information is available on this plant’s psychospiritual use, and it is not widely documented with many energetic uses in herbalism or aromatherapy. However, Holmes notes its ability, in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) terms, to clear heat – and describes its qualities as cooling, sweet, woody, and pungent (4). This corresponds well to its anti-inflammatory and analgesic actions. Wintergreen is associated with the wood and water elements in TCM, and has a descending, stabilising character (4).

    Tierra, however, notes wintergreen leaves as having a warming, spicy, and energetic character with an affinity for the liver and lungs; likely due to its expectorant and decongestant actions (9). Contrary to most modern advice, Tierra recommends internal use to “relieve pain and rheumatic complaints”. This is no longer recommended by herbalists due to toxicity concerns regarding methyl salicylate, the plant’s primary chemical constituent (3,9).

    Wintergreen’s psychospiritual energetic qualities and uses include ‘warming up’ and invigorating the sense of self, strengthening confidence and resolve. It is indicated for those who have lost their will, power, and passion, since it dispels fear and paranoia — it can incite one’s motivation to overcome challenges (4).

  • Traditional uses

    Traditionally, Native American communities have used both the berry and leaf internally, eating the fresh berries as a food, or brewing an infusion of the leaves to treat rheumatic conditions, headaches, fevers and sore throats (10).

    Wintergreen was also used commonly in gargles, mouthwashes and poultices due to its antiseptic properties, and to this day is still used in sports injury lotions and gels, and some dental care products (6).

  • Traditional actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • Traditional energetic actions

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What practitioners say

    Musculoskeletal systemMusculoskeletal system

    Conditions that benefit from treatment with wintergreen essential oil include “hot” conditions — rheumatoid arthritis (and rheumatic conditions in general), osteoarthritis, myalgia, muscle sprains and sciatica (5,11). It can also be very useful in improving acute inflammatory musculoskeletal issues, such as tendinitis, or tissue trauma accompanied with pain, haematoma, or bruising (4). It is commonly used by herbalists working in first aid settings to treat fractures, sprains or strains by supporting healing and reducing inflammation.

    Reproductive and urinary system

    Wintergreen’s affinity for both the reproductive system, coupled with its diuretic action, makes it a useful treatment for urogenital inflammation that may be caused by an infection or non-infective agents (4,5).

    Cardiovascular system

    Whilst widely used by herbalists to treat skeletal muscle complaints, wintergreen’s anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic actions also affect smooth muscle tissue, such as blood vessel walls and cardiac (heart) muscle. Its hypotensive and vasodilatory effects add to this, making wintergreen a useful treatment for conditions like angina pectoris, headaches and migraines (4,12).

  • Research

    Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens)
    Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens)

    Whilst few clinical trials investigating the impact of wintergreen oil exist, in vitro and ex vivo work is more extensive and has explored the efficacy of synthetic and natural standardised extracts of methyl salicylate, wintergreen’s primary constituent.

    Safety and efficacy of compound methyl salicylate liniment for topical pain: A multicenter real-world study in China

    A randomised, double-blind, parallel controlled multicentre in vivo clinical trial was conducted in China to evaluate the efficacy and safety of compound methyl salicylate liniment in the treatment of acute and chronic soft tissue pain. A positive control drug, diclofenac sodium liniment, was used, and the compound contained methyl salicylate (as well as menthol, camphor, chlorpheniramine maleate, and thymol).

    Of the individuals with acute or chronic tissue pain that were recruited, 3515 participated in the trial. Patients applied the methyl salicylate liniment to the affected area three times a day for seven days. Patients reported pain and tenderness levels before and after treatment. After seven days of treatment, excluding subjects who used analgesics or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS), the pain relief rate was 78.75%.

    At baseline, patients’ average self-reported pain score was initially 5.3/10. When pain was measured again seven days after treatment with the liniment, pain scores dropped to around 2.8 on average, showing a statistically  significant (p < 0.0001) reduction in pain.

    The authors concluded that their formula was “safe and effective” and could “relieve… shoulder and neck pain, back pain, or muscle pain”, with no new adverse drug reactions identified (13).

    The effect of standardised leaf extracts of Gaultheria procumbens on multiple oxidants, inflammation-related enzymes, and pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory functions of human neutrophils

    An ex vivo study aimed to understand the ideal solvent for extracting the active chemical constituents of wintergreen, as well as understanding its biological effects in human neutrophils (immune cells). 

    A standardised methanol–water extract was used, containing polyphenols, salicylates, catechins, procyanidins, phenolic acids and flavonoids. The extract showed a significant dose-dependent ability to downregulate pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory activity of human neutrophils (immune cells). It strongly reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS), that can damage human cells and DNA in high amounts. It downregulated the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and enzymes that remodel tissues, and also scavenged oxidants and inhibited pro-inflammatory enzymes. This means reduced inflammation, reduced tissue damage, and improved healing (14.)

    Salicylate‐containing rubefacients for acute and chronic musculoskeletal pain in adults

    A Cochrane systematic review of 1,368 patients found that whilst most topical salicylates were well tolerated short term by patients experiencing both acute and chronic pain, the review was limited in terms of efficacy and safety by insufficient data of adequate quality. Issues included inconsistent outcome reporting, high risk of study bias and a lack of heterogeneity in study design, as well as relatively small participant numbers. A lack of rigorous safety and adverse event reporting contributed to the limitations (15).

    Phytochemistry and biological profile of Gaultheria procumbens L. and wintergreen essential oil: From traditional application to molecular mechanisms and therapeutic targets

    A review of over 150 studies on wintergreen identified anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and photoprotective potential of a range of extracts which were taken from various parts of the plant. Wintergreen essential oil was found to have antifungal, larvicidal, antibacterial and insecticidal activity. However, most studies covered in vitro and ex vivo non-cellular (and cell-based) tests, so more research is needed on external use in vivo to further investigate wintergreen’s therapeutic potential and efficacy (16).

  • Did you know?

    Wintergreen essential oil is distilled from the leaves of the plant and contains up to 99.5% methyl salicylate, a chemical constituent responsible for the herb’s analgesic properties, yet the dried leaves only contain 1.48%, and the fresh leaves even less at 0.59%, (3,7,17). Methyl salicylate can also be found in the Betula (birch) family. 

    Methyl salicylate is converted to salicylic acid through hydrolysis after ingestion or through skin absorption (18).

    Wintergreen constitutes one of the primary ingredients in Tiger balm, giving its distinctive aroma and effect (19).

Additional information

  • Botanical description

    An ericaceous, evergreen shrub in the heath (blueberry) family. Wintergreen will grow up to 15 cm in height and spreads as it grows, and has round, leathery leaves. Its leaves are spicy and aromatic, turning red in winter. It produces small, white bell-like flowers and red berries, which is how the plant adopted the name ‘Canada teaberry’. It prefers acidic (ericaceous) soils (1,22).

  • Common names

    • Checkerberry
    • Eastern teaberry
    • Canada teaberry
    • Gaultheria
    • Gaulthérie
    • Sempreverdi
    • Gaulteria

  • Safety

    The essential oil of wintergreen should only be used short term — up to a maximum of two weeks, for the management of acute conditions (or flare-ups of chronic conditions) (6,20).

    Wintergreen should not be used during pregnancy, breastfeeding, children under seven or early infancy — high doses of the herb are teratogenic (can cause developmental abnormalities). It should be avoided in conjunction with anticoagulants (e.g., aspirin, warfarin), as it can enhance their activity (4,14).

    It should be avoided by those with blood clotting disorders or undergoing major surgery due to haemorrhage risk. It should also be avoided in patients with salicylate allergies or intolerance — this often includes people with ADD/ADHD (6,14).

    One teaspoon of wintergreen essential oil is equivalent to around 21 adult aspirin tablets, and 4 ml of oil can be lethal to a child, whilst 6 ml could be lethal to an adult if consumed (4,21).

    Topical application of the oil diluted within a sensible base (such as a balm or base oil) at an appropriate dilution rarely causes issues but those with sensitive skin may provoke reactive eczema or urticaria (3–5).

  • Interactions

    Since methyl salicylate can potentiate (increase the effect of) anticoagulant drugs, such as aspirin or warfarin, it should be avoided completely alongside these medications, as it could provoke haemorrhage — even if the wintergreen oil is applied externally. Several case reports have confirmed this (3,4,21).

  • Contraindications

    This herb should be avoided completely in pregnancy, while breastfeeding and in early infancy. It should not be used alongside anticoagulant medication or with suspected or confirmed salicylate allergy or intolerance. It should be avoided if undergoing major surgery and with blood clotting disorders (3,5,12).

  • Preparations

    Essential oil, diluted in a suitable medium:

    • Balm (2.4% maximum) (14)
    • Liniment (1-2% dilution of essential oil in a base oil) (6)
    • Massage oil (1% dilution in base oil) (6)
    • Fluid extract
    • Infusion or decoction of dried or fresh leaves

  • Dosage

    • Fluid extract (1:1 | 25%): 0.5-1ml (4)
    • Infusion/decoction (of dried herb): 0.5-1g daily (4)
    • Other preparations: Essential oil is distilled from the leaves and used at a maximum dermal application of 2.4%, diluted in a suitable base oil or other medium (3,5,12).

  • Plant parts used

    • Leaf (mainly steam-distilled essential oil but also sold as fluid extracts or dried leaf for infusions)
    • Berries (traditionally, not in modern preparations)

  • Constituents

    • Phenolic compounds: Gaultherin, salicylic, p-hydroxy benzoic, vanillic, caffeic and gentisic acids (5)
    • Volatile oil (<1%): Containing mainly methyl salicylate (up to 99.7%). This is present only in the steam distilled essential oil, which is the most commonly-used preparation today. When the oil has been distilled, the glycoside gaultherin hydrolyses (detaches) from the methyl salicylate, releasing it (2,3,5,20).
Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens)

  • Habitat

    Wintergreen is native to north-eastern America and Canada and has been introduced to the UK. It prefers poor, acidic (ericaceous) soils, and will grow in damp soil, in shade (full or partial). It is often found in woodland clearings, particularly underneath conifers (1,22,23).

  • Sustainability

    According to the Natureserve database, wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbensis largely ranked ‘Secure’ in status, although it is listed as ‘Vulnerable’ in South Carolina, USA and Manitoba, Canada and is listed as ‘Critically Imperiled’ in Newfoundland Island (24). The causes of the statuses in these three areas is partly attributed to the limit of its natural climate range, but also habitat destruction for agricultural use, slow rhizome-based plant reproduction (often disrupted by forest fires), and climate change (27, 20-31).

    It is not listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants Status, TRAFFIC or Species+ databases as being endangered or widely trafficked (24–26). In the UK, this plant is grown as an ornamental, whilst in the USA and Canada it is wild harvested or cultivated as a medicinal herb by farmers (12,16,29).

  • Quality control

    Adulteration of wintergreen essential oil is common; as synthetic methyl salicylate is widely and easily produced, it is often sold as ‘wintergreen oil’. It is recommended to verify the oil’s origin before purchasing it (3,6).

  • How to grow

    A low maintenance plant, wintergreen will grow in both damp or drier soils, although it will grow best in a moist, well-drained soil. Its natural habitat is acidic ground, which is partially shaded, so best results will be had if it is planted in similar conditions. It can be propagated via semi-hardwood cuttings, or grown from seed. It has a spreading, suckering growth habit which makes it ideal for ground cover in shaded areas. It is drought tolerant and evergreen, making it a robust and resilient ornamental and medicinal addition to the garden (22,23,28).

  • Recipe

    Wintergreen essential oil (Gaultheria procumbens)
    Wintergreen essential oil (Gaultheria procumbens)

    Anti-inflammatory healing joint balm

    This soothing balm is a basic version of one many medical herbalists use in their clinics. It is ideal for cooling hot, inflamed joints, strains and sprains and reducing both pain and swelling.

    This recipe makes one 60 g tin of balm and can be scaled up if desired. The below recipe is based on 20 gtt constituting 1 ml of essential oil.

    You will need

    • 60 ml tin
    • Jug
    • Saucepan
    • Hob
    • Wooden spoon
    • Small spatula
    • Cooking thermometer

    Ingredients

    • 52 ml sweet almond (Prunus dulcis) base oil, organic. You can use a St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) or marigold (Calendula officinalis) infused base oil if you prefer.
    • 8 g beeswax pellets (or if using soy wax, use 12 g, reducing base oil to 48 ml)
    • Up to 20 gtt wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) organic essential oil. Do not exceed this dose.
    • 6 gtt lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) organic essential oil
    • 3 gtt peppermint (Mentha piperita) organic essential oil

    How to make a healing joint balm

    • Add your base oil and wax pellets to a heat proof bowl.
    • Put a pan ⅓ full with water onto a medium heat.
    • Place the bowl into the water, suspended above the base of the pan if possible. A Pyrex jug hooked over the edge of the pan works well.
    • Stirring frequently, ensure your wax and oil has melted together before removing the bowl from the heat and turning off the hob.
    • When the base mixture has cooled to about 60°C, add your essential oils and stir for about 30 seconds.
    • Before the mixture sets, use the spatula to spoon it into the tin, and leave to cool. Do not put it in the fridge, allow it to cool at room temperature.
    • Label your balm with the name and date.
    • Use up to three times per day on the affected area.

    Safety note: Do not ingest the balm nor apply it to broken skin or mucous membranes.

  • References

    1. Badoux D. Contemporary French Aromatherapy: A Pharmacological and Therapeutic Guide to 100 Essential Oils. Jessica Kingsley; 2019.
    2. Botanical Research Institute of Texas (BRIT), University of Michigan. Native American Ethnobotany Database. 2003. Accessed July 17, 2025. http://naeb.brit.org/uses/search/?string=Gaultheria+procumbens
    3. Derry S, Matthews PRL, Wiffen PJ, Moore RA. Salicylate‐containing rubefacients for acute and chronic musculoskeletal pain in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;2014(11):CD007403. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007403.pub3
    4. Fisher C. Materia Medica of Western Herbs. Aeon; 2018.
    5. Guo J, Hu X, Wang J, et al. Safety and efficacy of compound methyl salicylate liniment for topical pain: A multicenter real-world study in China. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:1015941. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1015941
    6. Holmes P. Aromatica. Vol 2. Singing Dragon; 2019.
    7. Martin I. Aromatherapy for Massage Practitioners. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.
    8. Michel P, Granica S, Rosińska K, et al. The Effect of Standardised Leaf Extracts of Gaultheria procumbens on Multiple Oxidants, Inflammation-Related Enzymes, and Pro-Oxidant and Pro-Inflammatory Functions of Human Neutrophils. Molecules. 2022;27(10):3357. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27103357
    9. Michel P, Olszewska MA. Phytochemistry and Biological Profile of Gaultheria procumbens L. and Wintergreen Essential Oil: From Traditional Application to Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Targets. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(1):565. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25010565
    10. Oakeley H, ed. Modern Medicines from Plants. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2024.
    11. Peace Rhind J. Essential Oils: A Comprehensive Handbook for Aromatic Therapy. 3rd ed. Singing Dragon; 2019.
    12. Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). Gaultheria procumbens checkerberry Shrubs. Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). Accessed July 18, 2025. http://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/7679/gaultheria-procumbens/details
    13. Society (http://plantfinder.nativeplanttrust.org) NEWF. Gaultheria procumbens. New England Wild Flower Society. Accessed July 18, 2025. https://plantfinder.nativeplanttrust.org/plant/Gaultheria-procumbens
    14. Tisserand R, Young R. Essential Oil Safety. 2nd ed. Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2014.
    15. Gaultheria procumbens Checkerberry, Eastern teaberry, Teaberry, Creeping Wintergreen. PFAF Plant Database. Accessed July 18, 2025. https://pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?LatinName=Gaultheria+procumbens
    16. Gaultheria procumbens NatureServe Explorer. Accessed July 18, 2025. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.143319/Gaultheria_procumbens
    17. Valk AG. Forest Ecology. Springer; 2009.
    18. Telaprolu KC, Grice JE, Mohammed YH, Roberts MS. Human Skin Drug Metabolism: Relationships between Methyl Salicylate Metabolism and Esterase Activities in IVPT Skin Membranes. Metabolites. 2023;13(8):934-934. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13080934
    19. Tiger balm. TIGER BALM | Painkiller for muscle and joint pain. Tigerbalm.ch. Published 2025. Accessed July 23, 2025. https://www.tigerbalm.ch/en/Aetherische-Oele/Methylsalicylat
    20. International Federation of Aromatherapists. Ingestion and Neat Application of Essential Oils Guidance . Accessed March 10, 2025. https://ifaroma.org/application/files/9215/5169/6992/INGESTION__NEAT_APPLICATION_OF_ESSENTIAL_OILS_GUIDANCE.pdf
    21. NatMed Pro – Interactions Checker Tool. Accessed July 18, 2025. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/Tools/InteractionChecker
    22. Species+. Accessed July 18, 2025. https://www.speciesplus.net/species#/taxon_concepts?taxonomy=cites_eu&taxon_concept_query=gaultheria%20procumbens&geo_entities_ids=&geo_entity_scope=cites&page=1
    23. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Gaultheria procumbens. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN). Accessed July 18, 2025.https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?query=gaultheria%20procumbens&searchType=species
    24. The Trade in Wild Species – TRAFFIC – The Wildlife Trade monitoring network. Accessed July 18, 2025. https://www.traffic.org/what-we-do/the-trade-in-wild-species/
    25. Wintergreen. Herbalgram. Accessed July 18, 2025. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/healthy-ingredients/wintergreen/
    26. Gaultheria procumbens L. Plants of the World Online (POWO). 2025. Accessed July 17, 2025. http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:330655-1
    27. Ojha PK, Poudel DK, Dangol S, et al. Volatile Constituent Analysis of Wintergreen Essential Oil and Comparison with Synthetic Methyl Salicylate for Authentication. Plants. 2022;11(8):1090. doi:10.3390/plants11081090
    28. Cuchet A, Jame P, Anchisi A, et al. Authentication of the naturalness of wintergreen (Gaultheria genus) essential oils by gas chromatography, isotope ratio mass spectrometry and radiocarbon assessment. Industrial Crops and Products. 2019;142:111873. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.111873
    29. Cisternas-Fuentes A, Koski MH. Drivers of strong isolation and small effective population size at a leading range edge of a widespread plant. Heredity. 2023;130(6):347-357. doi:10.1038/s41437-023-00610-z
    30. Sr TS. American Wintergreen. Our Breathing Planet. May 6, 2022. Accessed July 20, 2025. https://www.ourbreathingplanet.com/american-wintergreen/

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (eg from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot
Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradich or wasabi, generate warmth when taken. In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage. Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold. .
Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol. .
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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