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  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Low-risk of dermal sensitisation
    No known contraindications

    Sustainability

    Status: At risk; vulnerable

    Key constituents

    α-santalol
    (Z) 𝛃-santalol
    Z-nuciferol

    Quality

    Frequently adulterated with other wood oils

    Key actions

    Antibacterial
    Cicatrisant
    Calming
    Sedative

    Key indications

    Inflammatory skin conditions
    Chronic diarrhoea
    Depression
    COPD

    Key energetics summary

    Cooling
    Restorative
    Moistening

    Preperation and dosage

    Tincture (1:3|50%): Internally, 3–12 ml per day

    Essential oil: For inhalation, 2–6 drops in water; dilute in a base 2–5%

  • How does it feel?

    Inhaling or tasting this plant is a strongly aromatic experience. Sandalwood’s aroma comes from its essential oil, which is distilled from the heartwood of the tree and has a lingering, musty, woody and deep aroma (1–3). When tasted in the form of a diluted fluid extract, the flavour is both bitter and astringent (3). It has been described as rosy, sweet, balsamic and woody, which goes some way to explaining its unique aromatic and taste profile (4).

    Sandalwood (Santalum album)
    Sandalwood (Santalum album)
    Sandalwood (Santalum album)

    The taste of sandalwood

    The below qualities are derived from organoleptic assessment.

  • Into the heart of sandalwood

    Sandalwood is a cultural, religious and medicinal staple across the Indian subcontinent, and has been since its introduction to the region in around 1300 BC (4,7,8). It is prized for its aroma, colour and structure and as such has been used in furniture-making, perfumery, religious incense and more (2,4,5,7).

    Since sandalwood is considered a cooling herb in TCM and Ayurveda, it is mainly used to treat conditions that are ‘hot’ and inflammatory in nature (7,9). This also applies to emotional states that involve ‘heat’ — for example, agitation that leads to nervous exhaustion, headaches or insomnia (3,7,9).

    It has been described as being helpful in promoting states of higher consciousness — and has long been used to aid meditation, in a similar way to frankincense, perhaps, but sandalwood is said to exert its effects by bringing us back to ourselves, helping us let go of over-investment in specific outcomes and accept reality as it is (7).

  • What practitioners say

    Sandalwood (Santalum album)
    Sandalwood (Santalum album)

    Integumentary system (skin)

    Sandalwood is used frequently as a topical essential oil (usually diluted in a massage oil or cream) for improving conditions like (dry) eczema, psoriasis, contact dermatitis, acne, urticaria, swelling or inflammation of any kind — especially where a burning sensation occurs (3,5,7).

    Nervous system

    Sedative, calming and analgesic, aromatherapists use sandalwood in massage and inhalation blends where there is a need to calm both the body and mind simultaneously, and relieve pain or tension that may be associated with chronic worry or stress (4,5). It can also be helpful for supporting through bereavement, or alleviating sciatica and other kinds of neuralgia (1).

    Respiratory system

    A respiratory antispasmodic, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory herb, the essential oil is used in chest rubs or diluted in throat gargles to alleviate dry coughs, reduce spasms, and to soothe sore throats or chronic bronchitis (1,3,5).

    Digestive system

    As a styptic, anti-inflammatory and bitter aromatic, sandalwood can be a helpful ingredient in blends to ease chronic inflammatory digestive conditions.

    Urinary system

    The same properties that indicate sandalwood for digestive issues also make the herb a valuable remedy to soothe an inflamed urinary tract or bladder (3).

  • Sandalwood research

    Sandalwood (Santalum album)
    Sandalwood (Santalum album)

    Santalum album extract exhibits neuroprotective effect against the TLR3-mediated neuroinflammatory response in human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells

    A 2021 in vitro study investigated whether sandalwood extract could reduce inflammation-related immune responses in nerve cells, specifically responses linked to neuroinflammation. Human neuroblastoma cell lines were subjected to a synthetic molecule that mimicked vial infection, and some were then treated with S. album extract. The study demonstrated that sandalwood extract changed how cells responded to TLR3 activation, indicating that it could potentially reduce harmful inflammatory responses, enhance beneficial antiviral immune responses or be therapeutic in conditions involving neuroinflammation (10). However, since this was an in vitro study, live human trials would be needed to further explore these initial findings.

    East Indian sandalwood oil is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor: A new therapeutic option in the treatment of inflammatory skin disease

    The interim results from an ongoing proof-of-concept phase 2 clinical trial published in 2017 showed that topical application of sandalwood essential oil appeared to reverse some changes caused by psoriasis in the laboratory, on a human skin tissue model. In nine out of eleven analysable (live, human) subjects in the trial, psoriatic plaque severity had reduced by the end of the study period. Seven of a total 11 subjects, 64%, demonstrated a ≥1.0 reduction in IGA score over the 28 day treatment period, which suggests a promising avenue for further research (11).

    A synthetic sandalwood odorant induces wound-healing processes in human keratinocytes via the olfactory receptor OR2AT4

    A 2014 study investigated how a synthetic sandalwood odorant affected wound healing processes in human skin — since expression of olfactory receptors is not only restricted to nasal epithelium, and since the researchers previously demonstrated that stimulation of keratinocytes with a synthetic sandalwood odorant generated a transient increase of intracellular calcium, they hypothesised that skin may also express olfactory receptors that could act as key conduits for skin healing processes, for example.

    The researchers were able to demonstrate that keratinocytes do indeed express functional olfactory receptors, and that Sandalore® (the synthetic sandalwood odorant tested) activated olfactory receptor OR2AT4, which in turn promoted wound-healing processes in the dermal tissue. It is important to note that this was a synthetic odorant and that the study was conducted on cultured cells and skin tissue models, not live humans — so more research with natural sandalwood extracts and live human subjects would be warranted to examine the conclusions further (12).

  • Historical use of sandalwood

    Sandalwood has a long history of use in medicinal, spiritual and religious contexts across both Ayurvedic medicine and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). It has been applied topically as a powder-paste to expel bad spirits or disease-causing Winds (4). It appears in several TCM formulae for diarrhoea, urinary conditions and “venereal discharges”(4).

    It is also an important funeral herb in India, and is used to embalm the deceased, since it is thought to carry the soul into its next life (7). It is burned in Hindu temples as incense and is also said to open the third eye (5,7).

    Cooling and calming for the whole body, this is a herb that is most useful in chronic weak or Damp conditions (4,7). Interestingly, TCM and Ayurvedic energetics vary; Ayurveda classes sandalwood as cooling and dry, but TCM considers it to be cooling and moistening, restoring tissue function not through an overly drying action, but by replenishing moisture (4,7,9).

  • Sandalwood’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • Sandalwood’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the description that herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel and affect the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment impacts health, according to each of their philosophies and frameworks. These assessments of individual herbs, though they often do align, can differ from one another due to cultural differences regarding perspectives on how herbs taste versus their physiological effects. Find out more about traditional energetics in our article An introduction to herbal energetics.

  • What can I use sandalwood for?

    Sandalwood (Santalum album)
    Sandalwood (Santalum album)

    Sandalwood and its essential oil can be used to treat conditions of the skin, as well as the nervous, digestive, respiratory and urinary systems (1,3). 

    It is astringent, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and decongestant, making it helpful for treating both skin and respiratory conditions — especially those involving bacterial infection (1,3). Because it is both gentle on the skin and mucous membranes, it can be safely applied to the chest in a balm or massage oil to alleviate coughs, or diluted in a bath oil to reduce urinary tract or skin infections (5). It is cicatrisant, reducing scar tissue, and helpful in promoting wound-healing (6). It can even be used as a gargle, in a very weak dilution, for sore throats (7).

    It is indicated in “burning” conditions: topically in a bath for cystitis, or used internally as a powder or tincture for chronic diarrhea, or mucous colitis (7). Powder of the wood is often applied as a paste to inflamed skin, since it is considered a cooling herb (7).

    Sandalwood’s high α- and 𝛃-santalol content makes it a good nervous analgesic and gently antidepressant herb, likely due to these constituents’ ability to bind to brain opioid receptors (5). It is both calming and sedative, and has been shown in clinical trials to improve both the quality and duration of sleep (5).

  • Did you know?

    Sandalwood originated in Australia, Jawa, Lesser Sunda Island and the Philippines — and was introduced to India in around 1300 BC (8,13).

  • Botanical description

    An evergreen shrub or small tree, sandalwood has opposite, petiolate leaves and produces clusters of small flowers in a variety of colours.

    Fruits are reddish-purple drupes, eventually black (13,14).

  • Common names

    • Sandalwood
    • Indian sandalwood 
    • Chandana
    • Santal (Hindi)
    • Chandanam (Tamil, Malayalam) (14)

  • Habitat

    Sandalwood is native to Australia, Jawa, Lesser Sunda Island and the Philippines, and was introduced to India in around 1300 BC where it has become naturalised and is an important part of the Indian economy; many consider it a native Indian plant at this point (8,13,15). India and Australia contribute around 74% of sandalwood’s global production (15).

  • How to grow sandalwood

    Sandalwood will grow best in dry, sandy soil and forested areas; as a maritime plant it will fare best when these conditions are mimicked (14). Sandalwood tolerates high wind, drought, salt and intense heat — it prefers full sun, but will grow in partly-shaded areas (16). 

    Since sandalwood is semi-parasitic, and will attach its roots to nearby trees to support itself, it may not be prudent to plant sandalwood too close to trees they might use as hosts (16). Both male and female plants must be present for sandalwood trees to fruit, and to grow sandalwood from seed, they will need to be scarified (16).

  • Herbal preparation of sandalwood

    • Internal
      • Tincture (1:3|50% ABV) (3)
      • Essential oil (inhalation) (4,5,7)
    • Topical
      • Powder (often applied with water, as a paste) (3)
      • Essential oil (diluted in base oil, cream or salve) (5)

  • Plant parts used

    Heartwood, sometimes also the roots (3,4,6)

  • Dosage

    • Internal
      • Tincture (1:3 50% ABV) 3–12 ml per day (3)
      • Essential oil (inhalation) 2–6 drops in water (4,5,7)
    • Topical
      • Powder (often applied with water, as a paste) 0.5–5 g per day (3)
      • Essential oil (diluted in base oil, cream or salve), 2–5% (4,5)

  • Constituents

    Principal aromatic, medicinal compounds.

    Sesquiterpene alcohols (3,17):

    • α-santalol (46.2–59.9%)
    • 𝛃-santalol (20.5–29%)
    • Z-Nuciferol (1.1–5.5%)
    • Epi-𝛃-santalol (4.1–4.3%)

  • Sandalwood recipe

    Sandalwood chest rub for chronic coughs

    A firm oil-based balm with sandalwood and other supportive respiratory oils to aid in chronic inflammatory lung conditions. 

    This recipe makes a 60 g tin at an essential oil dilution of approximately 3%. We recommend increasing the quantities as needed to make a larger batch.

    Ingredients

    • 52 ml base oil of choice — e.g., organic sunflower seed oil (Helianthus annus)
    • 8 g beeswax (Cera alba)
    • 25 drops sandalwood (Santalum album) essential oil
    • 19 drops cedar atlas (Cedrus atlantica) essential oil
    • 10 drops angelica (Angelica archangelica) essential oil

    How to make a sandalwood chest rub

    • Melt the base oil and beeswax together in a bain marie until fully combined
    • Remove from heat, and when cooled to 60°C, add the essential oils.
    • Stir for 60 seconds to combine
    • Pour into prepared tins.
Essential oils and sustainability: Challenges, opportunities, solutions

Essential oils and sustainability: Challenges, opportunities, solutions

  • Safety

    The essential oil of sandalwood is low-risk in terms of sensitisation risk, has no known cautions, and is considered both non-toxic and non-irritant (5–7,17,18). Its maximum recommended dermal use dilution is typically 2%, but for acute topical use, blends often contain up to 5% (17).

  • Interactions

    None known (5–7,17,18)

  • Contraindications

    None known (5–7,17,18)

  • Sustainability status of sandalwood

    Sandalwood was last assessed by The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN) in 2018, and was determined as “Vulnerable”. Sandalwood is a commercially important plant in India and is wild-harvested across its habitat (19). Now, its populations are decreasing significantly, primarily due to over harvesting and illegal harvesting (19). Mature trees are required for the best heartwood, which puts further strain on this already vulnerable species, and other factors such as fire, overgrazing in the plant’s habitat and spike disease infection in India are all contributing factors (19). 

    Previously, it was prudent for therapists and commercial consumers of sandalwood to seek out alternative herbs or species of sandalwood that offer a similar aromatic profile and benefits, such as S. spicatum (Australian sandalwood), but unfortunately, this species is now also listed as “Vulnerable”(19,20). Other alternatives do exist, but as with any at-risk herb, it is best to read the latest sustainability assessments before buying (21).

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Sandalwood is often subject to adulteration in the supply chain with other species of sandalwood (or other wood) oils, or synthetic fragrances, so care must be taken to source high-quality 100% pure essential oil, if not use another herb altogether, due to adulteration and sustainability concerns (17). 

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Essential oils and sustainability: Challenges, opportunities, solutions

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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