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herbal medicine

We share traditional, scientific and practical insights written by experienced herbalists and health experts from the world of herbal medicine and natural health

  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Large doses not recommended due to cyanogenic glycosides

    Sustainability

    Appendix II of CITES endangered species

    Key constituents

    Phenols
    Triterpenes
    Phytosterols
    Fatty acids

    Quality

    Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Cameroon, Nigeria, Sao Tome, Angola; Wild harvested-especially in Kenya; Contamination risks

    Key actions

    Antimicrobial
    Antimutagenic
    Antiandrogenic
    Antiproliferative

    Key indications

    Malaria
    Benign prostatic hyperplasia
    Fevers
    Urinary diseases

    Key energetics summary

    Bitter
    Pungent
    Cooling
    Astringent

    See below for discipline-specific energetics

    Preperation and dosage

    Bark and leaves
    25–50 mg/dose; 100 mg/day
    Tinctures, decoctions, infusions

  • How does it feel?

    African wild cherry leaves in particular have an almond-peachy aroma. They are oval-shaped with rounded edges. The leaves feel thick, leathery, glossy and smooth on the upper surface. The lower part of the leaves are paler. The bark feels rough, scaly and corrugated. The wood is heavy and dense, often used in traditional African construction (1).

    African wild cherry (Prunus africana)
    African wild cherry (Prunus africana)
    African wild cherry (Prunus africana)

    The taste of African wild cherry

    The below qualities are derived from organoleptic assessment.

  • Into the heart of African wild cherry

    African wild cherry bark is considered a potent medicine, whereby the bark is predominantly used because it consists of numerous active and diverse constituents. One of these is its anti-inflammatory properties which come from the rich amounts of phytosterols such as β-sitosterols, and triterpenes which can help reduce bladder irritation and pelvic discomfort. 

    The deeper essence of this plant lies in its energetic ability to clear stagnant heat in acute and chronic conditions where there may be swelling, irritation and a need to tonify the genitourinary tract. It also reduces the secretion of growth factors in the prostate by inhibiting prostatic fibroblasts (7). Serving as a tonic of the genitourinary system in men, it is traditionally applied as an aphrodisiac and for vitality in the improvement of sexual health and stamina (3,8). 

  • What practitioners say

    Reproductive system

    Urologists and herbalists view P. africana as a safe intervention for mild to moderate BPH, improving peak urine flow, reducing residual urine and nocturia (10,11). Practitioners also confirm that P. africana exhibits a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory effect that decreases local inflammation and swelling in the prostate (7,11).

    Immune system

    Herbalists regard the antioxidant properties of P. africana as equivalent to vitamin C, that can be considered in the prevention of inflammatory diseases such as arthritis, diabetes and cancer. In such cases, a water extract in comparison to an ethanol extract would have superior efficacy; increasing urination frequency and clearing cholesterol (7).

  • African wild cherry research

    African wild cherry (Prunus africana)
    African wild cherry (Prunus africana)

    The efficacy and safety of a dietary supplement containing a lipid co-extract from Serenoa repens and Pygeum africanum for the treatment of androgenetic alopecia (AGA) in women. Results of a randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial

    This study was carried out to determine the efficacy of a lipid co-extract from Serenoa repens and Pygeum africanum in post-menopausal women with AGA. Participants consisted of 40 caucasian women with a mean age of 58 years between 50 and 65 years with good health but diagnosed with AGA stage I to II. 

    Participants received either two  capsules per day of the combination of  S. repens and  P. africanum within a lipid co-extract, the formulation is called Complex Alphablok S or a placebo. Instructions were given for morning and evening doses for 16 weeks. 

    Results showed a statistical significant increase in the percentage of anlagen hair, observed after 16 weeks at an average of 112.32% with a 100% baseline, compared to placebo where there was no change. A statistically significant decrease in the percentage of telogen hair from the baseline after 16 weeks, compared to no change in placebo. It had decreased to 87.7% from 100% baseline.

    Secondary outcomes found a statistically significant increase in the hair’s resistance to traction after eight and 16 weeks compared to placebo, at 150% from 100% baseline. 

    The administration of this combination capsule was well tolerated except for mild digestive aversion in two participants. The combination was able to inhibit 5-alpha reductase activity, indicating a decrease in 5-alpha DHT and telogen hair (12).

    A prospective interventional study in chronic prostatitis with emphasis to clinical features

    This randomised controlled study analysed the efficacy of African wild cherry bark (Pygeum africanum) and saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) in the treatment of chronic bacterial prostatitis. Participant consisted of 72 males with a mean age of 40.98 reporting  pelvic discomfort and genital pain with or without lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) and sexual dysfunction.This study divided participants into  two groups.

    Group one received a combination of antibiotics. Group two received a combination of antibiotics, African wild cherry and saw palmetto. The dosage of African wild cherry was 200 mg daily for 30 days. Results showed 49 patients in group two were asymptomatic and bacteria free. While 16 people were bacteria free still reported symptom persistence. Seven still had bacterial persistence without symptoms. There was no statistical significance between group one and group two. 

    Secondary outcomes showed 54 patients in  group two were asymptomatic and bacteria free. While 14 were still symptomatic and/or had bacterial persistence. Four did not follow up. There was no statistical significance between group one and group two.The researchers of this study, discuss the basis for the potential efficacy of both African wild cherry and saw palmetto in past studies. Both botanicals have demonstrated impactful constituents in the mitigation of prostate-related conditions.

    African wild cherry bark consists of atraric acid which has antiandrogenic and anti-inflammatory activity that inhibits ligand-activated human androgen receptors. Saw palmetto has anti-inflammatory, androgen-independent activity that inhibits epidermal growth factor dependent growth and pro-inflammatory activity of prostate epithelial cells. This study shows that in comparison to antibiotics alone, botanical interventions may reduce symptom burden on patients (13).

    Pygeum africanum for benign prostatic hyperplasia

    A systematic review of randomised controlled trials aimed to investigate Pygeum africanum and its efficacy and safety in the treatment of BPH. The total number of participants included was 1562, all men with symptomatic BPH and a mean age of 66 presenting with symptoms of nocturia, peak urine flow, residual urine volume.

    A standardised extract of P. africanum was given at a dose of 75 to 200 mg per day.

    Primary outcomes showed P. africanum demonstrates improvement in urinary symptoms, and flow when compared with placebo with a moderately large combined effect size of −0.8 SD (95% CI −1.4 to −0.3). Men taking P. africanum were more than twice as likely to report an overall improvement in symptoms (RR 2.07; 95% CI 1.40–3.06), while peak urinary flow increased significantly by 23% (+2.5 mL/s; 95% CI 0.29–4.71).

    Nocturia was reduced by 19% (0.91 fewer episodes per night), although this individual outcome did not reach statistical significance (95% CI −1.95 to 0.14). This shows statistical significance in its effects on nocturia and peak urinary flow improving both urinary symptoms and flow measures. 

    The efficacy of Pygeum is largely significant in the treatment of BPH. There were some side effects concerning gastrointestinal effects and was otherwise  well tolerated (11).

  • Historical use of African wild cherry

    As the fourth most widely used medicinal plant, African wild cherry tree is a plant that has been used since ancient times in sub-Saharan African materia medica predominately as a purgative, and a remedy for pain (4,7). Considered a plant with many uses, the stem bark and leaves are mainly sought for its medicinal purposes (3,7). Throughout Africa the stem-bark is traditionally used for malaria, gastrointestinal disorders, fevers, chest pain, urinary, kidney diseases, BPH, stomachache, and for mental illnesses (5,7). It is also widely used as timber for tools and in veterinary medicine (7,9).

    • In South Africa, the bark has been prepared as a decoction by the Zulu to mitigate intercostal pain (4,7). Ethnobotanical records also show Zulu men making an infusion of the bark to treat micturition (7).
    • In Uganda, P. africana is used as an analgesic and antiinflammatory (9). 
    • In Kenya, it is used for chest pain, inflammation and fevers; to treat acne and various skin infections; added to stews after a goat slaughter (2). The Nandi community apply P. africana bark for diabetes, stomach issues, high blood pressure and skin conditions, the Kikuyu community use stem, bark and leaf parts to manage malaria, the Meru community made decoctions and infusions of the stem-bark for malaria, the Luhya use it in the management of prostate cancer (7). There are oral accounts by locals discussing how decocted P. africana bark treated individuals with meat allergies (2).
    • In Tanzania, the bark is used for stomachache, as a laxative, and for micturition (7).
    • In Cameroon, both leaves, roots and bark decoctions are used for prostatic disease, fever, stomach ache, urinary tract infection, gonorrhea, kidney disease, heart infections, wound, burns, heartburn, gastralgia and veterinary applications as a purgative for cattle (7,9). 
    • The Fulani call P. africana a “plant that has many uses” (9).

  • African wild cherry’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • African wild cherry’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the description that herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel and affect the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment impacts health, according to each of their philosophies and frameworks. These assessments of individual herbs, though they often do align, can differ from one another due to cultural differences regarding perspectives on how herbs taste versus their physiological effects. Find out more about traditional energetics in our article An introduction to herbal energetics.

  • What can I use African wild cherry for?

    African wild cherry (Prunus africana)
    African wild cherry (Prunus africana)

    The common parts used of African wild cherry, for health and healing is the bark and secondly the leaf. In Europe, African wild cherry has been extensively researched for men’s health. Many studies have focused on the genitourinary system particularly in the treatment for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostate gland hypertrophy affecting approximately 60% of men aged 50 and above in USA and Europe (1,2,3).

    Clinical studies in Europe have identified properties in P. africana as a useful intervention for type 1 and 2 BPH and lower urinary conditions such as nocturia, polyuria and urinary retention (4). There is additional evidence for its beneficial application to prostate cancer, mental health, type 2 diabetes, in the treatment of malaria as well as topically for wound healing and skin infections, and as a remedy for gastrointestinal disorders (5). 

    In Africa, especially East Africa, African wild cherry bark has been applied in traditional African medicine for stomach ailments and wound healing. The leaves are infused to suppress appetite, as an antibacterial, and in cases of genital infection and hirsutism (1). The antimicrobial aspects of African wild cherry, bark and leaf, have been traditionally applied to fungal and bacterial infections in the respiratory system (chest infections) and in the treatment of diarrhoea (3,6). 

  • Did you know?

    The other name for African wild cherry is stinkwood tree because its wood has an unpleasant odour (2). When freshly crushed, the leaves, twigs, fruits, and bark give off the scent of cyanide, due to cyanogenic glycosides produced by the plant (2,7). The cyanogenic glycoside rich leaves are eaten by the red, black, and white colobus monkeys as an important source of self-medication (7).

    Prunus is the largest member of the sub-family Amygdaloideae syn. Prunoideae, which includes the widely produced and consumed sweet cherry (Prunus avium), peach (Prunus persica), plum (Prunus domestica), African cherry (Prunus africana) and almond (Prunus dulcis). Of these sub-family members, P. africana is the only species that is indigenous to Africa and is possibly chemically distinctive (7). 

    In 1997 Cameroon exported 3225 metric tons of bark at a $220 million retail value. In the early 2000 exports reduced to 1350–1525 tons at a $436 million per year due to market disinterest in purchasing a threatened plant (14). 

    Despite its medicinal properties, Prunus africana is used in charcoal as well as timber production. (3)

  • Botanical description

    Prunus africana comes from the Latin African plum, belonging to the Rosaceae family, African wild cherry is a medium to large evergreen tree growing about 10–45 m as a forest canopy tree with a spherical crown, that is widely distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa; it can be found within several tropical Afromontane forests such as the Mount Kenya Forest (2,7,3). Other countries it can be found include Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, South Africa, Ethiopia, Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Democratic Republic Congo, Zimbabwe, and Madagascar, as well as some offshore islands (2). 

    The trunk is straight and can reach 1 m in diameter (2,7). While young the bark is smoother but as it ages it becomes rough, blackish-brown with increased fissures (2,7). The inner stem consists of a red bark (3). The leaves are simple, elliptical, alternative with fine toothed margins, shiny, dark green on the upper side and pale on the underside (2,7). The petioles are deep pink with 5–15 cm long midribs (7). The fruit ripens (November to March) and is enjoyed by birds, primates and other pollinators. It is a small drupe about 7–13 mm in diameter white, then turns green to reddish brown or black when ripe and bitter in taste (2,7,3). Its flowers are bisexual, fragrant, dull purplish brown color and are shaped in a spherical manner (7,3). Some records describe the flowers as small, white to pale green, clustered in loose terminal inflorescences (2). 

  • Common names

    African stinkwood, African prune, African wild cherry, bitter almond, iron wood, pygeum, red stinkwood, fever tree (2,3,4,15).

    The following are the names for P. africana in various vernacular:

    • In Fulani it is called dalehi (2).
    • In Kikuyu, muiri
    • In Swahili, kiburabura
    • In Kamba, mumbaume or mutimailu
    • In Keyo, tenduet
    • In Kipsigis, arareut
    • In Kisii, omoiri
    • In Luhya and Bukusu, kumusikhu or kumuturu
    • In Maasai, olkoijuk
    • In Market, tender
    • In Nandi, tendwet (2)

  • Habitat

    African wild cherry tree is indigenous to African montane forests, it prefers high altitude regions about 900–3,400 m above sea level, and thrives in moist, cool environments where volcanic soils and a large biodiversity of forest species thrive (2,4). It is a plant that prefers to live within an ecosystem.

  • How to grow African wild cherry

    To grow from seed, it requires no stratification and has a fairly short period of viability and is best sown as soon as it is ripe. Under ideal conditions, germination takes place within 35–50 days; expected germination rate of a mature, healthy seed is 60–80% (2).

  • Herbal preparation of African wild cherry

    • Stem bark: Traditionally decocted for oral use in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) treatments, BPH, chest and intercostal pain as well as respiratory conditions, diabetes, erectile dysfunction, fever and gastrointestinal disorders, gonorrhea, hypertension, kidney disease, mental illness, malaria, prostate cancer, purgative, typhoid, ulcers, inflammation, aphrodisiac, enhances sexual vitality in men  (3,15,8).
    • Bark powder: Applied topically applied for skin infections and wound healing (3,15).
    • Root-decoctions and infusions: Used for intercostal pain, gastrointestinal conditions, enlarged prostate and urinary disorders (15).
    • Leaves: Decocted for gastrointestinal conditions and infusions are prepared for appetite stimulation. Inhalations are applied  for fever, genital infections and hirsutism in women (3,15).
    • Fruit decoctions: Prepared for gastrointestinal conditions, chest and intercostal pain (15). 
    • Tincture: Clinical studies have shown activity against gram positive and gram negative bacteria (particularly methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus, dermatophytoses), and other drug sensitive and drug resistant strains (6). 
    • Tadenan️: An extraction of the bark with chloroform that consists of lipid/sterol fractions sold in Europe (4). 
    • A red liquid made by adding water to the pounded bark is used as a remedy for stomach ache (3). 

  • Plant parts used

    The bark is the most commonly used part, but the leaves and roots are also used medicinally (15). The fruits are occasionally used medicinally, however with a strong  bitter taste (2).

  • Dosage

    • Tincture (ratio 1:5| 45%): 5 ml 2–3 times daily
    • Infusion/decoction: Divided doses of 100–200 mg daily of bark infusion (4). Long term use of the infusion/decoction is recommended at 250–200 mg bark in divided doses for adults and elderly taken with food or milk to avoid gastrointestinal reactions (15). 
    • Other preparations: 25–50 mg single dose or a daily dose of up to 100 mg, chloroform extract with >99.9% ethanol (16). 

  • Constituents

    Most abundant bioactive compounds found in P. africana are sterols, triterpenes, coumarins and flavonoids. These have antiinflammatory, anticancer, antiviral and antimicrobial properties (2,3).

    • Phytosterols which inhibit prostaglandins in the prostate, suppress inflammatory and swelling activity seen in BPH and chronic prostatitis (7,17).
      • 3-β-sitosterol: High concentrations in the bark especially in plant growing in warmer regions (17), inhibits alpha reductase enzyme, cholesterol lowering and has diuretic properties similar to avocado, hypoxia species, and Moringa oleifera (5,17).
      • 3-β-sitostenone: In vivo studies show its anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and antioxidant properties, the reduction of AChE, TNF-α, and corticosterone activities, and improving antioxidant enzymes’ activity (5).
      • 3-β-sitosterol-glucoside
    • Triterpenoids: Overall demonstrate antimalarial activity by arresting P. falciparum growth and by inhibiting its biosynthesis of isoprenoids (5).
      • Pentacyclic triterpenoids
      • Oleanolic acid: Studies show that it induces a phase-2 response by increasing heme oxygenase-1 and NADH-quinone oxidoreductase, to prevent cells’ damage from free radicals and electrophiles (5).
      • Ursolic acid: In vivo studies show that this constituent has the ability to inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity in scopolamine-induced cognitive-impaired Swiss albino mice to improve cognition and performance in a passive avoidance task (5). Studies show that it also inhibits glucosyl-transferase, acts as an anti-oedema, inhibits melanoma and prostate cancer cells (17). Can be extracted in both aqueous and alcohol solvents. In summary, ursolic acid is considered an antioxidant, antiproliferative and anti tumor (17). 
      • Friedelin: Studies show that has anti-inflammatory activity (17). 
    • Flavonoids: These constituents offer antimicrobial activities (3).
      • Quercetin: In vivo studies show its ability of inhibition of alpha-reductase enzyme activity to inhibit prostate inflammation, it activates signaling pathways that regulate synaptic plasticity and long-term potentiation, ensuring neuronal integrity, hence its ability to ameliorate neuro-inflammation in Alzheimer’s disease(5)
      • Apigenin: In vivo studies show , antidiabetic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties (5). 
    • Polyphenols: These constituents overall have a chemo preventive effect on estrogen dependent breast cancer, found in bark extracts (17). 
      • Chlorogenic acid: In vivo and ex vivo studies show the inhibition of AChE activity in the frontal cortex and hippocampus (5).
      • Ferulic acid: Found in bark extracts, in vivo show that this constituent inhibits alpha-reductase enzyme activity to reduce prostate inflammation (5). These compounds also have anti tumor and hypocholesterolemic activity on the prostate (17).
    • Fatty acids: Polyunsaturated fats are mainly found in the essential oil of the bark; fatty acids and sterols have been shown to reduce the size of the prostate by blocking the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (the modulator of prostate growth) by the inhibition of 5-alpha reductase enzyme (17).
      • Myristic acid: Best extracted in aqueous solutions (17)
      • Palmitic acid 
      • Linoleic acid
      • Oleic acid
      • Stearic acid
      • Arachidonic acid
      • Benefice acid 
      • Lignoceric acid
      • Linolenic acid are all found in bark extract (7)
    • Additional constituents extracted in photochemical studies 
      • Long-chain fatty alcohols
      • Tannins
      • Saponins
      • Alkaloids
      • Glycosides (7)
      • Ketones (17)
      • *Saponins, alkaloids and tannins demonstrate wound healing activities (5)

  • African wild cherry recipe

    Traditional Prunus africana tea decoction (18)

    This is a folk preparation of P. africana tea using raw, coarsely chopped bark.

    Ingredients

    • 1 teaspoon dried P. africana bark
    • 1 cup of water

    How to make an African wild cherry decoction

    1. Place both bark and water in a small pot.
    2. Boil together and then simmer for 5–10 minutes on low heat.
    3. Strain the tea.
    4. Drink 1–2 times a day.

    Milk-based infusion

    Indigenous people prepared P. africana with milk. The milk may be substituted for almond, oat or soy alternatives.

    Ingredients

    • 1 teaspoon of bark powder
    • 1 cup of milk

    How to make an African wild cherry infusion

    1. Boil the milk in a gentle simmer.
    2. Stir in the P. africana bark powder.
    3. Steep on low heat for 10 minutes in order that the phytosterols (lipophilic compounds) release.
    4. Strain and drink.

    Powdered wellness mix

    A ready made powder which can be added to meals and desserts. 

    Ingredients

    • 1/4 to 1/2 teaspoon of P. africana

    How to make an African wild cherry mix

    1. Thoroughly mix powder in a porridge of choice — this may be oats or even a yogurt.
    2. You may blend it into a herbal coffee substitute.
    3. You may prepare a smoothie with pumpkin seeds, blueberries and bananas. 
    4. Add vanilla to taste.
Acknowledging and protecting African medicinal herbs: From baobab to pelargonium

Acknowledging and protecting African medicinal herbs: From baobab to pelargonium

  • Safety

    Pygeum is generally considered a herb safe, however, it may cause liver strain after prolonged use in some individuals (2).

    It contains cyanogenic glucosides which can release hydrogen cyanide following hydrolysis; therefore, it is not recommended to consume large quantities (3).

    Occasionally, large doses are applied over long periods of time. A study conducted over four weeks with a dosage of 300 mg/kg and another exceeding 5000 mg/kg showed no adverse effects of pygeum bark extract (5). 

    Pregnancy and lactation: There is insufficient reliable information about its use during pregnancy and lactation and, therefore, caution is advised (9,15,16). Caution during pregnancy, lactation and in children under the age of 12 years because of effects on androgen and oestrogen metabolism (4)

    A diagnosis of BPH is preferable before commencing treatment with standardised bark extract. Currently available evidence does not suggest carcinogenesis, mutagenesis or impairment of fertility associated with the use of Prunus africana (4).

    Lipophilic bark extracts appear to be well tolerated in humans. A few cases of minor and transient gastrointestinal side effects e.g. diarrhoea, nausea and gastric pain have been reported and a single case of constipation, dizziness and visual disturbance (4).

  • Interactions

    None reported (15).

  • Contraindications

    Anyone with hypersensitivity to the active substances and to other plants of the same family (16). 

    Avoid use in children and adolescents under 18 years of age, it is contraindicated because of its effects on androgen and oestrogen metabolism and the lower urinary tract symptoms in these populations requires medical supervision (9,15,17).

    Preparations of this species are contraindicated in cases of known allergy to members of the Rosaceae family (4).

    Reports of gastrointestinal irritation on an empty stomach. May cause constipation and diarrhoea in sensitive individuals (4,8,16).

  • Sustainability status of African wild cherry

    African wild cherry tree is one of Africa’s most valuable resources in medicinal plant trade. Over $220 million a year is gained from the bark of this plant often sold to pharmaceutical companies all over Europe. It has been extensively overexploited and over harvested in the wild, undergone habitat destruction, and lack of regulation since the mid 1900s when the European industry discovered its exceptional use for men’s health (2).

    The global demand has caused a great threat and ever since there has been a rapid decline in populations particularly in Madagascar and Cameroon where has become a CITES endangered species and no longer commercially viable; there has been unsustainable harvesting, loss of habitat a vulnerable situation currently reported at the IUCN (international union for conservation of nature) red list of threatened species (2,7,14). There are several programs in Kenya, Uganda and Cameroon to cultivate the plant in large scales, it is not yet on the extinction list but harvests have been stopped in these regions (7,14). ICRAF (International Center for Research in Agroforestry) in Kenya is leading in the effort of sustainable practices and cultivation (14). 

    Within traditional settings there are ethical harvesting practices. In Mount Oku, Cameroon, the Lumutu Sacred Forest consists of sacred groves where the whole community protects the environment including African wild cherry tree (14). In Embu, Kenya, there are over 250 sacred groves also protected by the community.

    Economics is largely the reason for illegal and massive wild harvesting. There needs to be implementation of fair and sustainable economic gains for everyone in order to prevent illegal exploitation. 

    To harvest sustainably, it is recommended to remove 3/4 of the bark on one side of the tree and leave 1/4 on the opposite side intact. This will indicate to the plant to grow new bark and it will not kill the plant(2). 

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    P. africana is currently being cultivated due to its status on a threatened endangered list due to overharvesting in the wild. Overharvesting or adulteration is rooted in poverty, corruption, poor regulation from both the EU and African industries (9). There are recent concerns about adulteration and improper identification of the plant (7). There are practices to implement proper identification through genetic testing, chromatography and even magnetic resonance to correctly identify the plant (7). Traditional identification includes recognising the characteristic cherry or bitter almond odour when the bark is cut, alongside  identifying the floral characteristics of the plant.

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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