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  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Unprocessed Rowan berries and leaves may cause gastrointestinal irritation and toxicity

    Sustainability

    Status: Lower risk

    Key constituents

    Hydroxycinnamic acids
    Flavonoids such as rutin and quercetin
    Anthocyanins
    Vitamin C

    Quality

    Native to Europe and Northern Asia
    Wild harvested
    Authenticity concerns of berry extracts

    Key actions

    Antioxidant
    Astringent
    Antidiabetic
    Vasoprotective

    Key indications

    Diabetes
    Cardiovascular inflammation
    Diarrhoea
    Kidney disease

    Key energetics

    Hot
    Dry

    Preperation and dosage

    Berries
    Historical use of bark
    No dosages given

  • How does it feel?

    The berries are bitter with a citrus note, like orange or grapefruit peel (1,2). They are also intensely astringent, drying the mouth (2,3). As the raw berries contain parasorbic acid and cyanogenic glycosides, rowan is most often consumed in jams, liqueurs and syrups, which help to balance the bitterness and astringency (1,4).

    Folk tradition is to collect rowan berries after the frost; this degrades the parasorbic acid and removes some of the bitterness (2,5). Some say the new buds of rowan smell and taste distinctly of almonds due to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides, which release hydrogen cyanide during digestion, so the buds are not recommended for eating (1,4).

    Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)
    Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)
    Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)

  • Into the heart of rowan

    Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)
    Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)

    Rowan is cited countless times in folk tales and tradition as a tree of thresholds, protection and fire. It was planted at the perimeter of homesteads, hung over lintels, and in the folk imagination it stands as a guardian at the boundary between the ordinary world and the world of witches, fairies and evil spirits (13,14). Known colloquially as the “witty tree” in parts of Britain, rowan was considered a strong protection against witches and their spells (8,24).

    The association of power and protection comes from the flame-red berries, which were held to be the source of its protective force, as if the tree itself were a fire to ward off malevolence (9). This connection with fire is conveyed in some of its traditional names: an Irish name for rowan is the druids’ tree, fid na ndruad, and it lends its name to the Ogham letter Luis, known as “flame” in early medieval writing (8,9).

    Quickening is another association in the folk literature on rowan. Its older British names, “quickbeam” and “quicken tree”, carry a life-bringing significance, conveyed by the medieval use of “quick” as meaning living (3,13). There is a rich archive of folk tales evidencing rowan berries’ life-giving attributes; the Quicken Tree in The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne was said to bear fruit that healed the ill, sustained the body, and even returned youth to the old (13,14).

    In the celtic/druidic tree calendar, rowan is set at Imbolc and the feast of Brigid, as February begins the turn of winter toward spring, the first calves are born, and the light begins to lengthen; befitting the affinity with fire, milk and the bringing of new life (8,9).

    Known also as “mountain ash”, rowan is a resilient tree, growing high on exposed hillsides where little else will, rooting in rock (13), perhaps contributing to the traditional reading of a hardy tree that endures. The small five-pointed star left at the base of each berry is seen by some as a natural pentagram, deepening its reputation as a charm against harm (15). In modern paganism, there is still an association of rowan with fire and the sun, and flower essences can be purchased, aimed at emotional healing, reconciliation and energetic protection (16–18).

  • What practitioners say

    Practitioners’ opinions on rowan are not well documented in contemporary herbals.

    Digestive system

     Though not commonly used in modern Western herbal medicine, Grieve recommended a decoction of the bark for diarrhoea and recommended the berries to protect against scurvy due to their high vitamin C content (3).

    Respiratory system

    Grieve recommends a gargle of fresh berries for sore throats and tonsil inflammation due to astringency (3).

  • Rowan research

    Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)
    Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)

    The research into rowan as a medicinal plant has not yet reached human trials; many of the claims regarding medicinal uses are traditional, and the evidence to corroborate this traditional understanding of its uses is currently largely in vitro.

    Antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory potential of Sorbus aucuparia fruits (rowanberries) from Romania (2025) (20)

    In vitro study to evaluate the antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic potential of polyphenol-concentrated extracts from rowan berries. Water and ethanol extracts were tested for effects on enzymes α-glucosidase, α-amylase, lipoxygenase, and hyaluronidase to assess the effects on enzyme function.

    Cytotoxicity was also assessed against a mouse fibroblast cell line. Rowan berry extract inhibited α-glucosidase to a similar level as the drug acarbose (α-glucosidase inhibitor); Lipooxygenase was inhibited to a slightly lesser degree than with ibuprofen treatment. However, concentrations would not be as high in vivo, and there is currently no human clinical data to support this.

    Berry components inhibit α-glucosidase in vitro: Synergies between acarbose and polyphenols from black currant and rowanberry (2012) (5)

    An in vitro study to assess α-glucosidase inhibition by berry polyphenols and interaction with acarbose (α-glucosidase inhibiting drug). Polyphenol-rich rowan berry extract inhibited α-glucosidase, comparable to acarbose and had an additive effect when used alongside (4). This is further evidence for a potential α-glucosidase inhibitory action, slowing digestion and carbohydrate absorption in diabetes, stabilising blood sugar. However, this is in vitro, and effects in humans are untested.

    The effects of Sorbus aucuparia L. fruit extracts on oxidative/nitrative modifications of human fibrinogen, thrombin, and hyaluronidase activity In Vitro (2021) (9)

    An in vitro study using human blood proteins and plasma to investigate whether rowanberry extracts affect blood clotting and blood-vessel proteins. Rowan berry extracts were added to blood proteins at low and high concentrations. The activity of thrombin (the enzyme that triggers clotting), the speed at which fibrin (the clot’s structural mesh) assembled, and chemical damage to fibrinogen (the mesh’s raw material) were assessed.

    The extracts dampened thrombin’s activity, protected fibrinogen from chemical damage, and slowed the assembly of the fibrin mesh (roughly a 38–48% reduction at the highest concentration, compared with 13% or less for the individual polyphenols tested alone). The whole extract worked better than its isolated polyphenols, suggesting the compounds act together. This is the closest study to a basis for describing rowan as “cardiovascular”; however, it is still a preclinical trial.

    The antioxidant, antibacterial and cell-protective properties of rowanberry fruits in vitro (2024) (6)

    A study evaluating the phytochemical composition of rowanberries and comparing this to the antioxidant, antibacterial and cell-protective activity seen in vitro. Polyphenols, flavonoids and carotenoids were found to be the predominant compounds, and there was a strong antibacterial effect against Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus bacterial species. Though this antibacterial activity is contested, particularly in human use, due to significantly lower concentrations in therapeutic doses (12).

    Nephroprotective effect of cornelian cherry and rowanberry in gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity in Wistar rats (2023) (21)

    In vivo study to investigate nephroprotective properties of Cornelian cherry and rowan fruits in induced kidney damage. Male Wistar rats were treated with rowanberry and Cornelian cherry extracts alongside gentamicin (a drug with nephrotoxic effects) for three weeks.

    Renal biomarkers and nitro-oxidative stress parameters were assessed and showed significant improvement compared to the gentamicin-only group, indicating renal tubular protection. However, visible kidney damage was still greater than in no-treatment controls.  Despite a theoretical contraindication of parasorbic acid with kidney disease, this could show a kidney-protective effect, explaining a historical usage for rowan to treat kidney disease; however, evidence is preclinical and not in humans. 

  • Historical use of rowan

    Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)
    Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)

    Rowan has a broad folk-medicinal history across Europe and Western Asia, with varied uses that differ between regions (19). The berries carry most of the folk-medicinal reputation; in Turkey, they are recorded for haemorrhoids and hypertension, whilst preparations from the leaves are documented for gastrointestinal complaints and prostatitis (6,19). Austrian folk medicine used the fruit for respiratory tract infections, rheumatism and gout. In Lithuania, rowanberry preparations were given orally for constipation and cough, while a decoction of the bark was used for diarrhoea according to Grieve (3,19).

    As food, rowanberries have a strong history across northern and eastern Europe, most often cooked into jams, jellies, wines and preserves (2,19). Berries were considered a good protection against scurvy (vitamin C deficiency), likely due to their high vitamin C content (3,11,15).

    Beyond its medicinal history, rowan carries a rich body of protective folklore. In Britain, it was valued as a guard against witchcraft, fairies and enchantment, known colloquially as the ‘witty tree’ (witches tree), commonly planted by the door or fixed as branches above the lintels of houses to keep evil spirits from crossing the threshold (13–15). Its power was linked to the flame-red berries, often paired with red thread, which symbolised fire and protection (13,14). 

  • Rowan’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

  • Rowan’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the description that herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel and effect the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment impacts health, according to each of their philosophies and frameworks. These assessments of individual herbs, though often do align, can differ from one another. Find out more about traditional energetics in our article An introduction to herbal energetics.

  • What can I use rowan for?

    Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)
    Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)

    Rowan sits in an unusual position medicinally. Whilst the fruit has a varied and well-documented folk use across Europe, and a rich, well-characterised phytochemistry, almost no clinical evidence and little mention in modern herbal literature. The plant is not covered by a German Commission E monograph or the European Pharmacopoeia (3,4,6,,7). 

    A large number of traditional uses cover the cardiovascular system, from haemorrhoids to hypertension to bleeding gums. There is some preclinical evidence supporting the antioxidant protective activity for cells in the blood, as well as an anti-clotting effect at multiple stages of the blood-clotting process (8,9). Many constituents in rowan are known for their antioxidant potential, including vitamin C and several of the polyphenol compounds, like quercetin and rutin (6,10). This could also contribute to the kidney-protective traditional usage, which has not yet been confirmed in human trials, but is supported by some preclinical evidence (6,9,10,11). 

    The most consistent evidence is in support of rowan’s antidiabetic action. Polyphenol-rich rowanberry extract showed in vitro a similar action to acarbose (a diabetes drug) on α-glucosidase (carbohydrate-digesting enzymes in the gut lumen) (4,12). Whether this translates to postprandial glucose change in humans is untested.

    There is also some evidence for the antibacterial effects of rowanberry extracts against MSSA (methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus), MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and Enterococcus bacteria species (2). But the most comprehensive review of the genus states that the antimicrobial activity of rowan fruits is poorly argued and appears weak, citing several studies (4). So, the evidence is far from conclusive for this abundant fruit.

    Regardless of the evidence, rowan berries have a long-standing culinary place in European culture, so tapping into the high vitamin C levels and complex bitterness via syrups, jams and jellies is a simple and traditional way to engage with rowan (2,6,11).

  • Did you know?

    Almost every sugar-free chewing gum lists rowan in its ingredients. The sweetener sorbitol is named after rowan. The sugar alcohol was first isolated in 1872 from rowanberry juice, and was named after the genus Sorbus. Sorbitol is abundant in the fruit; one analysis found levels as high as 13% of the fruit weight (12).

  • Botanical description

    Rowan is a medium-sized, slender deciduous tree reaching around 20 metres with purplish grey bark (22,23).

    Leaves grow alternately, divided into 5–8 leaflet pairs with one additional terminal leaflet; they are ovate, pointed and serrated, turning yellow and red in the autumn (23,24).

    The flowers of rowan are arranged in clusters, small, with five petals and many stamens, reminiscent of other Rosaceae family tree species (22,23).

    Late summer brings its characteristic mass of red-orange berries, hanging in clusters from branches (2,23).

  • Common names

    • Rowan 
    • European rowan 
    • Mountain ash

  • Habitat

    Native to Europe and Northern Asia, and cultivated in North America (1). Rowan resides predominantly in cooler, Northern European regions, nicknamed “mountain ash” for its propensity to grow at high altitudes with greater rainfall levels (22,24). Rowan is often found in deciduous woodland in the understory, on heaths, highlands and cliffs (22).

  • How to grow rowan

    Rowan can be planted as a garden tree, and ornamental varieties are commonly grown (22). Bare-root plants can be planted in winter months, whilst pots can be transferred throughout the year into moist, well-draining soil in sun or partial sun (25). Staking and regular watering in the first two years encourage deep, strong roots (25).

  • Herbal preparation of rowan

    • Decoction gargle (3)
    • Jam/Jelly
    • Syrup
    • Liquor

  • Plant parts used

    • Predominantly berries
    • Some historical usage of bark (3, 6,19)

  • Dosage

    There is no established dosage for Sorbus aucuparia. The herb is not covered by the German Commission E monographs (7), does not appear in the European Pharmacopoeia as a medicinal drug, and no clinical trial has established a therapeutic dose in humans.

    • Tincture (ratio | %): No published dosage
    • Fluid extract (1:1 | %): No published dosage
    • Infusion/decoction: No published dosage
    • Other preparations: Culinary preparations such as jelly, syrup, wine and liquor are the dominant contemporary usage (1,4).

  • Constituents

    • Hydroxycinnamic acids: Chlorogenic acid, cryptochlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid (4,11)
    • Flavonols: Quercetin, isoquercitrin, hyperoside, rutin, Quercetin 3-O-(6″-malonyl)-glucoside  (4)
    • Flavan-3-ols and proanthocyanidins: Catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin B1, procyanidin B2 (also in flowers)
    • Anthocyanins: Cyanidin, pelargonidin and delphinidin glycosides (12)
    • Triterpenes: Ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, betulin, α-amyrin, β-amyrin, cycloartenol, squalene (4)
    • Sugars and polyols: Sorbitol (134.1 g/kg fw), glucose (52.9 g/kg fw), fructose, sucrose (trace) (4)
    • Organic acids: Malic, citric, tartaric, fumaric in fruit; malic, citric, oxalic in leaves (4)
    • Fatty acids: Linoleic, oleic, palmitic (4)
    • Lactones: Parasorbic acid — degrades during fruit processing (4)
    • Cyanogenic glycosides: Prunasin/amygdalin  present in the buds and seeds (4)
    • Vitamins: ascorbic acid (vitamin C), carotenoids (vitamin A), tocopherols (vitamin E)(4,6,11)

  • Rowan recipe

    Rowan berry syrup

    Historically, rowan has predominantly been used in preparations with sugar to balance the bitterness and astringency. Due to the high vitamin C content in rowan berries, they were traditionally used to prevent scurvy (3). Rowan syrup can be added to soft or alcoholic drinks for a complex bittersweet note (26). 

    Ingredients

    • 1 kg of rowan berries
    • 2–3 litres of water 
    • 300 g sugar for every 1 litre of juice
    • 2 teaspoons of salt

    How to make a rowan syrup

    1. Remove any stalks from the berries and roughly chop them.
    2. Transfer them to a pan and cover with about 2 litres of water; simmer for around 15 minutes before mashing the berries in the pan and straining the liquid through a muslin.
    3. Return the berry pulp to the pan with a further litre of water and repeat the previous step, discarding the pulp. 
    4. Measure the liquid yielded from the process and add 300 g of sugar per litre of liquid and 2 tsp of salt. 
    5. Bring your mixture to the boil for around 5 minutes, before cooling and decanting to sterilised bottles. 
A guide for herb-drug interactions 

A guide for herb-drug interactions 

  • Safety

    Raw rowan berries and leaves contain parasorbic acid and cyanogenic glycosides. Parasorbic acid is a gastrointestinal irritant; cyanogenic glycosides release hydrogen cyanide during digestion (1,19). Cooking degrades parasorbic acid and cyanogenic glycosides, nullifying the digestive irritation and toxicity concerns — traditional preparations are jellies, syrups and liqueurs, which naturally degrade these components (1,4,6). 

    Pregnancy and breastfeeding

    There is no pregnancy toxicity data for Sorbus aucuparia. No teratogenicity studies, no human exposure data. Due to a lack of data, medicinal doses should be avoided in pregnancy and lactation; culinary quantities of cooked fruit have a long history of food use in Europe with no reports of harm, though this is not explicit evidence of safety (4,6).

  • Interactions

    No clinically documented interactions exist for rowan. It does not appear in Stockley’s Herbal Medicines Interactions or ESCOP monograph interactions (27,28). However, the TRC Natural Medicines database interactions checker suggests a theoretical interaction with nephrotoxic medications (29).

    Theoretical interactions:

    • Antihyperglycaemic agents (particularly α-glucosidase inhibitors): Rowanberry polyphenols inhibit α-glucosidase at a comparable level to the drug acarbose (12,20), which slows digestion and carbohydrate absorption, whilst some evidence of an additive synergistic effect of rowanberry extract with acarbose was shown in vitro (12). However, no case studies or human trials currently exist to prove this mechanism.
    • Anticoagulants and antiplatelets: In laboratory studies, rowanberry extract slowed blood clotting, dampening the activity of thrombin, the enzyme that triggers clot formation, and hindering the assembly of the fibrin mesh that gives a clot its structure (9). This is an in vitro plasma model, and no clinical interaction has been reported in human trials.
    • Nephrotoxic drugs: Parasorbic acid can cause kidney damage when ingested in high quantities. Though largely theoretical, as an interaction, it is recommended to avoid rowanberry use alongside drugs such as cyclosporin, gentamicin and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs which impact the kidneys (29).

    For more information on herb-drug interactions, have a look at the article “A guide for herb-drug interactions“. 

  • Contraindications

    Raw or unprocessed fruit should be avoided by anyone, particularly by children, based on parasorbic acid and cyanogenic glycoside content (1,4,5). Parasorbic acid can cause damage to kidneys and should be avoided in kidney disease (29).

  • Sustainability status of rowan

    Status: Green (lower risk)

    NatureServe records rowan’s conservation status as Secure (30). Rowan was assessed within the European Red List of Trees, in which 170 species of Sorbus were named, of which 19 are considered Least Concern and therefore not a conservation concern, Sorbus aucuparia being one of these (31,32). 

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy  and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Rowan is largely wild-harvested rather than commercially cultivated for medicinal use, though ornamental and sweet-fruited cultivars exist and have been bred to improve organoleptic properties, with significantly different sugar/organic acid ratios and massively varying phytochemical contents between cultivars (4,33). This huge variation is itself a quality control issue when used medicinally due to unknown quantities of active plant constituents (33).

    A review of the methods for assessing the quality and adulteration of herbal medicines. There are some reports of concerns about adulteration of rowanberry extracts sold for cosmetics, so care should be taken when choosing reputable suppliers (34,35). For more information on how herb quality and adulteration are assessed, refer to the article.

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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