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  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Safe for adults and children
    No documented adverse side effects
    No contraindications
    No interactions

    Sustainability

    Status: Lower risk

    Key constituents

    Monoterpenes
    Esters
    Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons
    Ketones

    Quality

    Adulteration risk with essential oil
    Subject to chemotype variability

    Key actions

    Expectorant
    Relaxant
    Anti-inflammatory
    Antihematomic

    Key indications

    Wound healing
    Bruising
    Stress
    Respiratory congestion

    Key energetics

    Cool/neutral
    Dry
    Sweet

    Preperation and dosage

    Diffuser
    Essential oil: 2–3 drops
    Infusion: 1 g per day

  • How does it feel?

    Helichrysum essential oil comes from the flower of the plant, and has a rich, medicinal aroma with floral, honeyed undertones. It also has notes of black tea and hay, and a hint of spiciness; it is sometimes described as having a combination of rose and mild curry aromas (1,2).

    In Liguria, Italy, the leaves are used to flavour cooking, and are described as ”rusmarin sarvego”, the local common name, meaning ”wild rosemary”— the taste is described as more delicate than true rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus) (3).

    Since the essential oil of helichrysum is pungent, floral, eucalyptus-like, heady and strong, with a hint of spice, it is instantly invigorating. It imbues a sense of forward-looking purposefulness and optimism when inhaled.

    Helichrysum (Helichrysum italicum)
    Helichrysum (Helichrysum italicum)
    Helichrysum (Helichrysum italicum)

  • Into the heart of helichrysum

    A key skin, musculoskeletal and respiratory herb, helichrysum essential oil is widely applicable and broadly safe, which makes it a versatile and effective ingredient for both topical and inhalation blends. This is a primarily restorative and relaxant herb, whose actions are demonstrated both physically (through calming inflammation and restoring tissues) and emotionally (through calming the mind, promoting emotional resilience and acceptance) (9,10).

    Helichrysum essential oil distilled Corsican plants tends to be prized due to its high di-ketone (italidione) content, which is largely responsible for its anti-inflammatory effects (8).

    Considered sweet in energy and neutral to cool in temperature, according to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) principles, the essential oil of helichrysum activates qi and Blood, and has a circulating movement (5). As such, it is both helpful in reducing stagnation, alleviating pain, and nourishing Heart yin (5).

  • What practitioners say

    Skin healthIntegumentary system (skin)

    When doctors in France began experimenting with Helichrysum in the 1960s, they were astounded at its efficacy in injury treatment, in particular in cases of tissue trauma and severe bruising (5). Its skin regenerating actions coupled with its anticoagulant properties have made it a first choice by medical herbalists and aromatherapists for the topical treatment of bruising and scarring (5,7).

    Nervous system

    Despite its strong aroma, helichrysum is one of the most important relaxant essential oils in the aromatherapist’s dispensary, and is commonly used as part of massage oil blends, inhalations and topical balms for the treatment of anxiety, stress, tension and suppressed anger — it combines well with clary sage, grapefruit and eucalyptus essential oils in treating lethargic emotional states, or those where there is psychological stagnation (10).

    Respiratory system

    Leonardo Santini, an Italian researcher, considered the “father” of helichrysum research by some, conducted many studies on the plant in the 1940s and 50s — his clinical observations included improvements in coughs, bronchial secretions, and respiratory difficulties in patients who underwent treatment with a range of helichrysum preparations (12).

    Digestive system

    In vitro and some more modern (2022) in vivo research has been conducted on helichrysum, specifically investigating metabolic and digestive conditions due to its antioxidant activity, lipid peroxidation inhibitory activity, and its modulation of inflammatory pathways, but these results are not conclusive; Helichrysum’s actions on the digestive system and metabolism should therefore be investigated further (13).

  • Helichrysum research

    Helichrysum (Helichrysum italicum)
    Helichrysum (Helichrysum italicum)

    Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don and Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench Infusion consumption affects the inflammatory status and the composition of human gut microbiota in patients with traits of metabolic syndrome: A randomized comparative study

    This 2022 study of thirty patients with metabolic syndrome found “reduced serum levels of proinflammatory markers” after four weeks of daily consumption of an infusion of the plant material — but the plant part used was unspecified (13). The authors concluded that the infusion could act as a prebiotic, improving the intestinal environment as well as improving dysbiosis and gut barrier dysfunction in patients with metabolic syndrome (13).

    Protective effect of Arzanol against H2O2-induced oxidative stress damage in differentiated and undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells

    A 2024 in vitro study on differentiated SH-SY5Y (neuron-like) cells suggests that Arzanol, a strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compound in helichrysium (not the essential oil, importantly, but the plant extract), could be protective against cellular oxidation, which could indicate its potential for neuroprotection, and is a promising avenue for further research (14).

    Effects of Helichrysum italicum extract on growth and enzymatic activity of Staphylococcus aureus

    A 2001 in-vitro study showed that under laboratory conditions, Helichrysum showed inhibitory activity on Staphylococcus aureus strains as well as on associated enzymes, and reduced their growth (15). This would be interesting as an area of further research, and human randomised clinical trials would be needed to confirm its efficacy with regards to its anti-microbial activity.

  • Historical use of helichrysum

    Traditionally, helichrysum was taken in the form of an infusion or decoction of the dried plant, to alleviate chronic bronchitis, asthma or whooping cough, and to restore liver function, address burns, or treat psoriasis (1). It was also used in the form of an infusion to treat inflammatory bowel disease without toxic side effects — this is probably due to its antispasmodic action on the ileum, an action which has been supported by modern research (11).

  • Helichrysum’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • Helichrysum’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the description that herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel and effect the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment impacts health, according to each of their philosophies and frameworks. These assessments of individual herbs, though often do align, can differ from one another. Find out more about traditional energetics in our article An introduction to herbal energetics.

  • What can I use helichrysum for?

    Helichrysum (Helichrysum italicum)
    Helichrysum (Helichrysum italicum)

    Helichrysum is primarily used in its essential oil form, and even then it does not have a long history of medicinal use — it was popularised in the 1960–1980s by Pénöel and Franchomme, two French aromatic physicians (4,5). Being strongly anti-inflammatory, it is one of the most effective essential oils for treating arthritis, fibromyalgia, or strains and sprains — it also dispels oedema which often accompanies injury or chronic inflammatory musculoskeletal conditions (4,6). It is one of the few essential oils that can be applied undiluted to skin due to its low toxicity and sensitisation risk (4–6). 

    It is both antihaematomic and cicatrisant, meaning that it can resolve bruising and improve the speed and quality of skin regeneration post-surgically or following injury, respectively; it is cited widely as an excellent scar treatment due to its di-ketone content (4,6,7). 

    It is astringent, tightening and supporting tissues, both superficially and within deeper tissue structures, further aiding tissue damage repair. As such, it is useful in treating a wide range of dermal and musculoskeletal conditions (4,6). Dermally, it has documented uses for the treatment of abscesses, acne, boils and burns (8).

    Emotionally speaking, it is indicated for those who experience sluggishness, stress, anxiety, suppressed feelings of anger, or feel otherwise agitated; it is helpful for promoting calm, acceptance, inner strength and patience (9,10).

    As such it is recommended for those people experiencing tension-related conditions such as stress, as well as PTSD, shock, anxious forms of depression, addictive disorders and co-dependency (9,10).

    Its expectorant actions make it a supportive ingredient in treatments for respiratory conditions where there is a need to relax the lung tissues (asthma, for example, or whooping cough) or where there is an excessive inflammatory response (such as with allergies)  (9,10). As a mucolytic, it is able to break down thick, sticky mucus and when used in a steam inhalation, it can provide relief from congestion in addition to calming inflammation in the respiratory tract (4).

  • Did you know?

    Helichrysum is sometimes called “curry plant” due to its unusual aroma, but it is not an ingredient typically used in curries, since it comes from the Mediterranean.

  • Botanical description

    A strongly aromatic plant with woody, many-branched stems and greyish green, dry leaves, and small yellow flowers in clustered domes that become dry and crispy as the plant matures (1,16).

    It grows to around 0.6 metres high (1,16).

  • Common names

    • Everlasting
    • Immortelle
    • Curry plant (4–6,10,16)

  • Habitat

    As helichrysum is a Mediterranean plant, it prefers full sun and chalky or loamy soils that are well-drained and alkaline to neutral in pH (16).

  • How to grow helichrysum

    Grow in a South–, East– or West–facing aspect, in a sheltered location; this plant is hardy throughout most of the UK (16).

  • Herbal preparation of helichrysum

    • Decoction or infusion
    • Essential oil (diluted in base oil)
    • Essential oil (Inhalation)

  • Plant parts used

    Flowers, flowering tops (4)

  • Dosage

    • Inhalation: 2–3 drops in a diffuser, inhaler or on a tissue (5)
    • Essential oil (massage oil)
      Dilute approx. 15 drops of helichrysum essential oil in 30 ml of base oil (2–5% dilution) and apply as a full body massage (10)
    • Infusion of dried herb
      1 g of dried plant material, consumed daily (17)

  • Constituents

    Aromatic compounds

    •  Monoterpenes
      • 𝜶-pinene
      • 𝜸-curcumene
    • Esters
      • Neryl acetate
    • Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons
      • 𝜷-caryophyllene
    • Ketones
      • Italidione I

    Non aromatic compounds from whole-plant extract

    • Arzanol
      • Prenylated phloroglucinol-α-pyrone

  • Helichrysum recipe

    Lethargy and depression inhalation blend (10)

    An aromatherapeutic essential oil blend to lift the spirits and energise the body.

    Ingredients

    • 3 drops helichrysum (Helichrysum italicum) essential oil
    • 1 drop clary sage (Salvia sclarea) essential oil
    • 2 drops lemon eucalyptus (Eucalyptus citriodora) essential oil

    How to make a helichrysum inhalation blend

    Blend the essential oils in a small beaker or add them directly to a diffuser or inhaler, and inhale as needed.

5 herbs instead of anti-inflammatories

5 herbs instead of anti-inflammatories

  • Safety

    The essential oil of Helichrysum has a moderate risk of skin irritation, but no known contraindications (1,5,6). It should be used at a maximum of 0.5% when applied topically to the skin (6).

    Trials in young children and in adults indicate that the ingestion of the H. italicum plant is safe — however, neat essential oils should not typically be ingested (6,18); although, Holmes does suggest a gel cap of the essential oil (2–3 drops in olive oil) can be taken internally (5).

    There is a lack of reproductive-toxicity and pregnancy-specific human data for Helichrysum italicum (1,5,6,18). Whilst no adverse effects or teratogenicity has been reported, caution should be exercised during pregnancy due to the paucity of pregnancy-specific safety information.

  • Interactions

    None known (1,5,6,18)

  • Contraindications

    None known (1,5,6,18)

  • Sustainability status of helichrysum

    Helichrysum italicum was last assessed for The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN) in 2023 and is listed as Least Concern (19).

    Species+ does not have data for this species, however a sustainability assessment workshop was conducted by the IUCN in 2007 in collaboration from communities harvesting this herb in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and a standard of harvesting and organic production of the herb and essential oil was called for (20). This was superseded by the later FairWild certification. As such when sourcing Helichrysum essential oil, it is important to look for standards such as FairWild to ensure sustainable provenance (20,21).

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Helichrysum is subject to highly variable chemotypic variability and as such, GC MS data should be sought wherever possible when sourcing the essential oil to ensure the intended therapeutic qualities are present (22). As with all aromatic herbs, essential oils are sometimes adulterated so care should be taken to source 100% pure essential oil or grow and dry the herb wherever possible to ensure quality (23).

  • References

    1. Lawless J. Encyclopedia of Essential Oils. Harper Thorsons; 2014.
    2. Simon J. Volatile compounds of the curry plant. Published 1991. Accessed July 25, 2026. https://www.academia.edu/69689263/Volatile_compounds_of_the_curry_plant
    3. Ghirardini MP, Carli M, del Vecchio N, et al. The importance of a taste. A comparative study on wild food plant consumption in twenty-one local communities in Italy. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3(1):22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-22
    4. Martin I. Aromatherapy for Massage Practitioners. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.
    5. Holmes P. Aromatica. Vol. 1. Singing Dragon; 2016.
    6. Tisserand R, Young R. Essential Oil Safety. 2nd ed. Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier; 2014.
    7. Etheridge DC. Integrated regimes: support during conventional treatments. Unpublished report; 2025.
    8. Aromaweb. Helichrysum essential oil: benefits, uses & insights. Aromaweb. Accessed July 25, 2026. https://www.aromaweb.com/essential-oils/helichrysum-italicum-essential-oil.php
    9. Holmes P. Aromatica. Vol. 2. Singing Dragon; 2019.
    10. Worwood VA. The Fragrant Mind: Aromatherapy for Personality, Mind, Mood, and Emotion. 2nd ed. Bantam Books; 1997.
    11. Furlan V, Bren U. Helichrysum italicum: from extraction, distillation, and encapsulation techniques to beneficial health effects. Foods. 2023;12(4):802. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12040802
    12. HerbalGram. Helichrysum italicum: the sleeping giant of Mediterranean herbal medicine. HerbalGram. Accessed July 25, 2026. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/herbalgram/issues/105/table-of-contents/hg105-feat-helichrysum/
    13. Petelin A, Šik Novak K, Hladnik M, et al. Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don and Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench infusion consumption affects the inflammatory status and the composition of human gut microbiota in patients with traits of metabolic syndrome: a randomized comparative study. Foods. 2022;11(20):3277. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11203277
    14. Piras F, Sogos V, Pollastro F, Rosa A. Protective effect of arzanol against H2O2-induced oxidative stress damage in differentiated and undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(13):7386. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137386
    15. Nostro A, Bisignano G, Cannatelli MA, Crisafi G, Germanò MP, Alonzo V. Effects of Helichrysum italicum extract on growth and enzymatic activity of Staphylococcus aureus. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2001;17(6):517-520. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-8579(01)00336-3
    16. Royal Horticultural Society. Helichrysum italicum “curry plant.” RHS website. Accessed July 25, 2026. https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/34062/helichrysum-italicum/details
    17. [Duplicate of reference 13 — see note below]
    18. Kramberger K, Kenig S, Jenko Pražnikar Z, Kočevar Glavač N, Barlič-Maganja D. A review and evaluation of the data supporting internal use of Helichrysum italicum. Plants. 2021;10(8):1738. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10081738
    19. Khela S. Helichrysum italicum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Published online February 10, 2023. Accessed July 25, 2026. https://www.iucnredlist.org/en
    20. Leaman DJ. Trading wildlife. IUCN Regional Office for Europe Newsletter. 2007;14:8-9.
    21. FairWild Foundation. ISSC-MAP merges with FairWild Foundation. FairWild Foundation website. Published August 10, 2009. Accessed July 25, 2026. https://www.fairwild.org/news/2009/8/10/issc-map-merges-with-fairwild-foundation
    22. Ninčević Runjić T, Pljevljakušić D, Runjić M, Grdiša M, Šatović Z. Phenotypic plasticity vs. local genetic adaptation: essential oil diversity of natural immortelle (Helichrysum italicum (Roth.) G. Don) populations along eastern Adriatic coast. Front Plant Sci. 2025;16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2025.1467421
    23. Capetti F, Marengo A, Cagliero C, et al. Adulteration of essential oils: a multitask issue for quality control. Three case studies: Lavandula angustifolia Mill., Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck and Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel. Molecules. 2021;26(18):5610. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26185610

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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