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  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Not suitable in high doses during pregnancy.

    Sustainability

    Status: Low risk

    Key constituents

    Curcuminoids
    Terpenoids
    Carotenoids
    Polysaccharides

    Quality

    India, China and Southeast Asia
    cultivated
    Risk of lead contamination

    Key actions

    Anti-inflammatory
    Hepatic
    Antioxidant
    Antirheumatic

    Key indications

    IBD
    Eczema
    Immune dysregulation
    Rheumatic conditions

    Key energetics

    Hot
    Dry
    Pungent
    Sour

    Preperation and dosage

    Root
    8 g/per day
    Tincture 1:3| 60%: 3–15 ml per day

  • How does it feel?

    Turmeric has a powerful earthy, rich and aromatic distinctive flavour. Upon tasting, the first impression is of a very powerful aromatic spice, quickly turning into a taste similar to black pepper. This is followed by a significant bitterness, followed by a second wave of heat and finally a lingering aromatic and warming aftertaste.

    The warming effects on the body can be felt almost immediately after tasting, with a specific stimulating and warming effect felt on the digestive system, which then spreads throughout the body.

    Turmeric plants (Curcuma longa)
    Turmeric An old world, modern day panacea, or state-of-the-art sports medicine
    Fresh turmeric root (Curcuma longa)

  • Into the heart of turmeric

    A key concept in Ayurvedic health is that of supporting agni (fire) in digestion, as a metaphor for all digestive and metabolic processes at the core of health. It relates to the Ayurvedic term ãma — the idea that an accumulation of toxins in the digestive system can lead to problems elsewhere in the body.

    Turmeric is known as deepana — enkindling the digestive fire, and pachana — helping digestion. Fundamentally, turmeric helps to relive stagnation and metabolic congestion. It relieves the build up of toxins or ama and can be applied to help with inflammatory conditions, reproductive stagnation, digestive sluggishness or skin disorders (5,6). 

    In TCM, turmeric is seen as a warming herb that moves qi and blood, helping to clear damp heat and alleviate pain. It is best applied to inflammatory states which are rooted in stagnation rather than deficiency (7).

  • What practitioners say

    Digestive systemDigestive system

    Turmeric has widespread application to digestive problems. As a very widely consumed culinary spice it has long been favoured for reducing indigestion in many forms, including dyspepsia, colic and IBS. It can help to restore a disturbed microbiome and can be considered in many inflammatory bowel diseases and even as part of a bowel cancer support regime (6). 

    Turmeric has a stimulant effect on the liver, increasing bile output and helping to dissolve and prevent gallstones. It is traditionally considered a blood purifier and is often used for promoting clear skin and clearing systemic toxaemia; eczema, urticaria, psoriasis and acne (6,8). 

    Reproductive system

    In Ayurvedic terms turmeric is used to clear kapha accumulations from the lower abdomen, uterus and apanakshetra. This is specific for treatment of fibroids, cysts, endometriosis, dysmenorrhoea, amenorrhoea and congestive pelvic inflammatory conditions and unusual vaginal discharge. As a specific herb for rasa dhatu it also works on the secondary tissue stanyasrotas and is used to purify breast milk as well as to promote the flow of the menses.

    Immune system

    Turmeric is known to reduce systemic inflammation. It is used in arthritic problems, dermatitis, and other skin problems. In Ayurveda  it is favoured for pitta-kapha conditions and in this case mixed with more bitter herbs (9). As an immunomodulator, the active constituent curcumin downregulates pathways such as NF-κB and COX-2 helping to prevent chronic low grade inflammation (10). This indicates turmeric in the treatment of inflammatory diseases, chronic inflammation and allergies.

    On top of this, turmeric enhances activity of macrophages and natural killer (NK) cells, modulates T cell response and reduces excessive cytokine production, meaning it can be applied in low immunity or hyperreactive immunity (10). 

    Cardiovascular system

    Turmeric has circulatory stimulating and warming properties similar to ginger, chillies or black pepper. This leads to increased blood flow through the tissues, and is likely to accentuate its value in treating inflammatory conditions that are worsened by the cold (5). 

    Skin health

    Turmeric is excellent for reducing pain as a topical application in bruises, infections, swellings as well as for inflammations like mastitis, sprains and pain (11). Caution is advised as it is a powerful dye and will stain everything it comes into contact with. 

  • Turmeric research

    Turmeric root (Curcuma longa)
    Turmeric root (Curcuma longa)

    Curcumin is the main constituent in turmeric responsible for many of its therapeutic actions, however it is insoluble in water, and rapidly converted to inactive metabolites in the gut, so is in fact poorly absorbed into the tissues (12). Studies have shown that potentially only 1% of curcumin consumed is absorbed through the gut wall and into the body (13). One review of more than 120 clinical trials found no successful double blind, placebo controlled trial of curcumin, and concluded that it is an unstable, reactive, non bioavailable compound (4).

    Fortunately, as one author has reported “curcumin does not need to be absorbed to bring about its effects since it has profound effects on the intestinal wall and can effectively reduce inflammation by this mechanism” (14). The following summary identifies research that follows the action of both curcumin and other turmeric constituents on the gut wall.

    Chili peppers, curcumins, and prebiotics in gastrointestinal health and disease

    Curcumin has been shown to reduce the activity of gut wall proinflammatory factors, including cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), 5-lipoxygenase (LOX), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), TNF-a, IL-1, -2, -6, -8 and -12, TLR 4, and Nf-kappa-β (15).

    Curcumin improves intestinal barrier function: Modulation of intracellular signaling, and organization of tight junctions

    An in vitro study using human intestinal epithelial cell (IEC) lines (Caco-2 and HT-29) and macrophages was carried out to analyse the effects of curcumin on LPS-induced inflammation and barrier dysfunction. Curcumin was administered at 5 μM for 48 hours and the results showed curcumin successfully reduced LPS-induced inflammatory signalling and preserved tight junction integrity. The study suggested that turmeric can be used to treat metabolic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, resulting from diet-induced gut barrier dysfunction (16). 

    Curcumin-mediated regulation of intestinal barrier function: The mechanism underlying its beneficial effects

    A review carried out amongst preclinical studies and human trials found that curcumin acts locally in the gut due to poor systemic availability. It concluded there were a number of different mechanisms of action including: Preserving the mucus layer, reducing direct bacterial contact with epithelial cells; enhancing tight junction protein (e.g., ZO-1, claudins) expression and organisation thereby reducing paracellular permeability and gut bacteria-derived lipopolysaccharide (LPS) translocation and by increasing secretion of antimicrobial peptides.

    The study found positive outcomes in the treatment of metabolic, inflammatory, and neurological diseases including obesity, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, depression, and arthritis (17).  

    Curcumin as a therapeutic agent in the chemoprevention of inflammatory bowel disease

    A systematic review and meta-analysis was carried out to examine placebo-controlled randomised clinical trials (RCTs) on curcumin in treating inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including both ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn’s disease (CD). Thirteen RCTs were included with curcumin being administered orally and compared to placebo across a range of dosages.

    The results showed a significant improvement in UC patients achieving remission in, with adverse effects being similar between placebo and curcumin groups. No clear benefit was found for Crohn’s disease, however it concluded that turmeric is an effective anti-inflammatory and gut protective herb to use in treating UC (18). 

    Comparison of remicade to curcumin for the treatment of Crohn’s disease: A systematic review

    A systematic review was carried out amongst peer reviewed human studies after 2007 to evaluate the effect of curcumin as a treatment in conjunction with remicade amongst patients with Crohn’s disease (CD). It found that patients using curcumin saw an average reduction of 55 points in the Crohn’s Disease Activity Index (CDAI) and improved inflammatory markers (19). 

    Effect of different curcumin dosages on human gall bladder

    A randomised, single-blind, three-phase, crossover clinical trial was carried out amongst healthy human volunteers to explore the effect of curcumin on gallbladder contraction. Curcumin was administered orally to 12 healthy volunteers at dosages of 20 mg, 40 mg and 80 mg, with each participant receiving all three doses in different phases. Results showed 40 mg of oral curcumin was sufficient to induce a 50% contraction of the gallbladder within two hours in participants (20). 

    There are also other powerful constituents of turmeric that are likely to be more easily absorbed and have their own significant activity elsewhere in the body (21). Particular interest has been in ar-turmerone which, as well as being readily bioavailable, has shown to have promising anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic and neurorestorative properties (22,23,24,25). Given the current interest in the inflammatory aetiology of mental health problems and neural disease, it is of interest that turmeric has been identified to play a role in modulating microglial inflammation (26).

  • Historical use of turmeric

    Turmeric (Curcuma longa)
    Turmeric (Curcuma longa)

    Turmeric has been one of the most valued remedies in Ayurvedic medicine, as a heating and drying remedy that moves the circulation, and clears digestive-based toxins (ãma or damp) especially from the lower abdomen and pelvic areas. This ties in closely with the Ayurvedic concept of supporting agni (fire) in the digestion.

    Turmeric has a long list of traditional health uses across many cultures. In India, it is regarded as a stomachic, tonic and blood purifier and used for poor digestion, fevers, skin conditions, vomiting in pregnancy and liver disorders. Externally, it is applied for conjunctivitis, skin infections, cancer, sprains, arthritis, haemorrhoids and eczema.Another common use is to promote wound healing (6).

    In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), different applications are attributed to the rhizome and tuber. Turmeric rhizome is said to be a blood and qi tonic with analgesic properties. It is used to treat chest and abdominal pain and distension, jaundice, frozen shoulder, amenorrhoea due to blood stasis and postpartum abdominal pain due to stasis. It is also applied to wounds to disinfect and accelerate wound healing. The tuber has similar properties, but is used in hot conditions as it is considered to be more cooling. One particular application is viral hepatitis (6,8).

    Traditional Thai medicinal uses include for gastrointestinal ulcers, anal haemorrhage, vaginal haemorrhage, skin disease, ringworm, insect bites and to prevent the common cold. In earlier Western herbal medicine, turmeric was regarded as an aromatic digestive stimulant and as a cure for jaundice (8).

  • Turmeric’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • Turmeric’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What can I use turmeric for?

    Turmeric root (Curcuma longa)
    Turmeric root (Curcuma longa)

    Turmeric can be included in a daily routine to help support long term inflammatory conditions including skin and joint problems, such as arthritis and other rheumatoid conditions. Turmeric is often consumed in regular daily quantities in India as part of a balanced diet incorporated into cooking. 

    Turmeric has an affinity for the digestive system, and is known to ignite agni (digestive fire) within Ayurvedic medicine. Its anti-inflammatory properties act directly on the digestive system, helping to treat chronic inflammatory conditions originating in the gut including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s. Many chronic inflammatory diseases are linked to inflammation in the gut and intestinal barrier dysfunction, and in such cases turmeric can support positive treatment outcomes (1). 

    Turmeric has wider benefits on gut health and due to its prebiotic properties, and can help in building a healthy gut microbiome (2). It can be taken after a course of antibiotic treatment or to help in recovery from a debilitating illness to aid recovery and support the regrowth of a healthy microbiota. It has also been shown to reduce symptoms of indigestion and IBS (3,4).

    Turmeric is a hepatic and helps to stimulate bile flow, which supports the body in detoxification from drugs, alcohol and toxins (5). It is advisable to source turmeric from reputable sources and pay attention to recommended dosages to reduce the risk of liver injury. It contains high levels of antioxidants, which have shown to reduce oxidative stress and increase free radical scavenging potential.  

    Turmeric is a warming, drying spice in the same category as ginger (Zingiber officinale) (to which it is related), black pepper (Piper nigrum) and chillies (Capsicum minimum). Turmeric can be called upon when symptoms are worsened by cold, damp conditions which is often the case with arthritic problems. 

    Turmeric is helpful in relieving a variety of menstrual conditions, including in cases of pelvic inflammation and stagnation, bloating and in instances where symptoms are relieved with a hot water bottle. Turmeric’s anti-inflammatory actions help to increase circulation and provide warmth, thereby helping to alleviate pain in the pelvic area (5).

  • Did you know?

    Turmeric has long been used as a dye for textiles and foods, although it eventually fades when in direct sunlight (10). In Ayurveda, turmeric is associated with purity and cleansing, and represents fertility and new beginnings and was often used to bless objects, doorways or people (11).

  • Botanical description

    It is a tall, stemless herb that can grow up to 1.5 m in height and has characteristic large, pale green and elongated leaves. Turmeric flowers are a pale yellow colour.

    The root (technically rhizome) is oblong or cylindrical and often short-branched. The external colour of the rhizome is brown and internally the colour ranges from yellow to bright yellow-orange.

    The rhizome consists of two parts: An egg-shaped primary rhizome and several cylindrical and branched secondary rhizomes growing from the primary rhizome. These two parts were once differentiated in the Western trade as C. rotunda and C. longa.

    In traditional Chinese medicine, this differentiation is retained, the primary rhizome being called the ‘tuber’ and the secondary rhizome, the ‘rhizome’ (27).

  • Common names

    • Indian saffron (Eng)
    • Kurkumawurzelstock (Ger)
    • Gelbwurzel (Ger)
    • Rhizome de curcuma (Fr)
    • Safran des Indes (Fr)
    • Haridra (Sanskrit)
    • Haldi (Hindi)
    • Jianghuang (Chin)

  • Habitat

    Turmeric originated in south Asia, in particular India, but it is cultivated in many warm tropical regions of the world where it is found to have naturalised. It is no longer found in its native habitats however, its native habitat would be humid warm climes with a lot of rainfall (27).

  • How to grow turmeric

    Turmeric (Curcuma longa)
    Turmeric (Curcuma longa)

    Turmeric plants are fairly easy to grow indoors in a planter or container. They need plenty of warmth and sunlight to replicate the growing conditions of their native habitat.

    You will need a 14–18-inch pot or planter for each six to eight inches of rhizome, and enough potting soil to fill it. To start, you can sprout your turmeric rhizome in a smaller container to be transplanted later into the larger containers (usually once they have a few leaves).

    You can purchase a store bought turmeric rhizome. Cutting into sections, with two or three buds (nodules that protrude from the sides of each rhizome) on each section.

    Fill 3-inch pots halfway with a good potting soil and then lay the rhizome sections flat on the soil. Then cover with more potting soil.

    Water well and slip the pots into clear plastic bags to create a warmer temperature inside.

    These pots need to be placed in the warmest place you can find (germination is most successful at temperatures between 25–30°C ). Sprouting at lower temperatures will be very slow. Rhizomes are also susceptible to rot during this period if the temperature is not sufficient.

    Check on them every few days and once the sprouts start to emerge, pots should be moved to a windowsill or under a grow light. Optimal growing temperature at this stage is between 24–27°C . If the room doesn’t meet this temperature range, they should be placed on a heat mat.

    Regularly check the soil inside the mini greenhouses to keep the soil moist, but not soggy. Misting the leaves once or twice a day with water to keep the humidity up is advised. Allowing the soil to dry out at any point will reduce your final harvest.

    When plants reach around 6–8 inches tall they can be carefully transplanted into larger pots (either the final ones or an intermediate size) topping up the potting soil. Begin turning the heat mat down several degrees each week gradually down to around 21°C. At this point, you can remove the heat mat as long as your indoor temperature averages at around 20°C.

    The plants can be taken outside when warmer nights are expected and all chance of frost has passed. Water as needed during the summer and autumn to keep the soil moist (but not soggy) (28). 

  • Herbal preparation of turmeric

    • Fresh rhizome
    • Dried powdered 
    • Capsules 
    • Tincture

  • Plant parts used

    Root / rhizome

  • Dosage

    • Tincture (ratio 1:3| 60%): ​​Take between 3–15 ml in a little water per day.
    • Dried powdered or capsule: 4 g or a heaped teaspoon of powdered turmeric (or equivalent preparation) 1 to 2 times daily (29,30).

  • Constituents

    • Terpenoids
      • Monoterpenes: α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, p-cymene, α-terpineol
      • Sesquiterpenes: Ar-turmerone, bisabolene, curcumene, germacrone, γ-atlantone, curcumenol, turmerone
      • Triterpenes: Phytosterols (campesterol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol)
    • Curcuminoids: Yellow pigments (3–6 %), (diarylheptanoids and diarylpentanoids), 22 identified including curcumin (diferuloylmethane) and demethoxylated curcumins.
    • Phenolic compounds: Caffeic acid, protocatechuic acid, coumaric acid, coumarins, phenylpropanoids
    • Carotenoids: β-Carotene
    • Polysaccharides: Arabinose
    • Essential oil (2.5 to 5%) containing sesquiterpene bisabalones (including ar-turmerone 28%, β-turmerone 17% and curlone 14%), zingiberene, phellandrene, sabinene, cineole, borneol
    • Vitamin C, calcium, phosphorous, potassium, sodium, magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese, chromium, cobalt, nickel, copper

    Turmeric’s most prominent active constituent curcumin is generally referred to as if it was a single chemical entity. However, it is actually a variable mixture of three diarylheptanoids: diferuloylmethane (curcumin I), desmethoxycurcumin (curcumin II), and bisdesmethoxycurcumin (curcumin III). Sample-to-sample variability of curcumin significantly reduces the consistency of research findings for its effects and bioavailability (10,31,32).

  • Turmeric recipe

    Joint protector tea

    It’s almost an inevitable human condition that we will suffer from some sort of joint pain as we get older. All that wear-and-tear throughout life can catch up with us but we have a herbal tea recipe that will help keep the red-hot inflammation of arthritis and gout at bay.

    Ingredients

    This will serve 2–3 cups of ache-free tea.

    How to make turmeric tea

    • Put all of the ingredients (except for the meadowsweet leaf and honey) in a saucepan with 600 ml (21fl oz) cold filtered water. Cover with a lid and simmer for 15 minutes.
    • Take off the heat and add the meadowsweet leaf.
    • Leave to steep for 10 minutes, strain and add some honey to taste.

    Recipes from Cleanse, Nurture, Restore by Sebastian Pole

5 herbs instead of anti-inflammatories

5 herbs instead of anti-inflammatories

  • Safety

    Turmeric is largely considered a safe and well tolerated herb in standard dietary doses. Large medicinal doses should be avoided during pregnancy (5). Some adverse effects such as nausea, diarrhoea and gastrointestinal irritation have been reported in some individuals when taken in large doses (29).

  • Interactions

    Owing to turmeric’s antioxidant qualities, it is posited that turmeric may attenuate the effects of alkylating agents used as chemotherapy. There has also been research to suggest that turmeric may reduce concentration of tamoxifen (33).

    Turmeric also has potential additive effects with anticoagulant drugs, such as warfarin, methotrexate, and amlodipine (33).

    Curcumin may also influence CYP450 liver enzyme metabolism (29). 

    For anyone taking any medications wishing to work with herbs, working under the guidance of a herbal practitioner is always advised.

  • Contraindications

    Contraindicated with duodenal and gastric ulcers, gallstones and biliary tract obstruction (5,29).

  • Sustainability status of turmeric

    According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants Status this species is currently classed as data deficient, meaning it has not been assessed. It is occasionally found to have naturalised in places where cultivation takes place.

    Further research would be needed to understand its conservation needs (34). Turmeric is widely cultivated to meet growing consumer demand (35).

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Turmeric is predominantly cultivated, mostly in India, China and Southeast Asia. Cultivation ensures consistent curcuminoid content and reduces the variability seen in wild harvested specimens (29). Lead contamination is a key concern with turmeric and so sourcing from reputable suppliers with transparent growing methods is crucial (36,37).

Meet our herbal experts

Sebastian Pole
- Herbalist, Herbcast host

Sebastian Pole started Herbal Reality in 2020 to share traditional, scientific and practical insights into herbal medicine that informs a deeper... Read more

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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