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herbal medicine

We share traditional, scientific and practical insights written by experienced herbalists and health experts from the world of herbal medicine and natural health

  • Herb overview

    Safety

    Considered safe.
    Do not use in pregnancy.

    Sustainability

    Status: Caution, at risk

    Key constituents

    Essential oils
    Gums
    Bitter
    Resins

    Quality

    Native to north and eastern Africa and Arabian peninsula
    Wild harvested
    Adulteration risk

    Key actions

    Antimicrobial
    Anti-inflammatory
    Analgesic
    Antioxidant

    Key indications

    Respiratory infections
    Ulcers
    Diabetes
    Arthritis

    Key energetics

    Warm
    Dry
    Bitter
    Aromatic

    Preperation and dosage

    Resin
    Tincture (1:1 | 90%)

  • How does it feel?

    When the bark of this sturdy bush is wounded, ducts inside produce a granular secretion that flows as a yellow liquid and hardens to a reddish-brown mass. This is brittle, semi-transparent and oily, with a rough powdery surface (1). The resin smells aromatic; tastes acrid, aromatic and bitter (1); and sticks to your teeth (2).

    Its warming and drying qualities are stimulating, making it good for circulation, dispelling stagnation and congestion in the body, especially in the mucosa and skin (3).

    Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)
    Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)
    Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)

  • Into the heart of myrrh

    Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)
    Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)

    The analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of myrrh, are thought to be due to the terpenoids, particularly sesquiterpenes (furanoeudesma-1,3-diene and curzerene), diterpenes and diterpenic acid fractions (8). In addition, in vivo evidence suggests this action can be blocked by the drug naloxone (an opioid antagonist), which suggests they are working via opioid mechanisms in the brain (8).

    The antimicrobial effects of myrrh are thought to work in two ways — via a direct effect on the microbes and also by stimulating white blood cells to combat pathogens (9). The direct antimicrobial activities are due to the sesquiterpenoids and phenolic acids, these have been shown to disrupt the cell membrane of pathogens, inhibit enzyme activity, and interfere with the proliferation of the pathogen (10).

    The antioxidant properties of myrrh are due to various compounds such as terpenoids, flavonoids and phenolic acids – these enhance the body’s natural enzyme activity, chelate metals and scavenge free radicals (10).

    Myrrh’s internal and external vulnerary actions are due to its ability to promote the proliferation of fibroblasts, enhance the deposition of collagen, and aid the process of epithelial healing, however the phytochemicals responsible remain unknown (11).

  • What practitioners say

    Respiratory systemRespiratory system

    The warming, stimulating, antimicrobial and astringent properties of myrrh mean that it is used for a range of different respiratory conditions including: catarrh of the nasal passages, throat, pharynx and ears; sore throat, sinusitis, tonsillitis, cough, asthma, bronchitis, common cold (2,3,7,9). IL-6 — a proinflammatory cytokine that is a key agent in viral respiratory infections — is inhibited by myrrh, suggesting a mechanism for its immunomodulatory effects in respiratory infections (18). 

    Digestive system

    Myrrh’s astringent action on mucus membranes, especially in the mouth, throat and lower in the gastrointestinal tract, has meant it has appeared in pharmacopoeias for the treatment of mouth ulcers, gingivitis, tonsilitis, laryngitis and stomach ulcers (2,7,9).

    Myrrh is used in inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis) and leaky gut, to improve the barrier function of the intestine. In vitro research suggests the mechanism for this is reducing the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-13, which is upregulated in inflammatory bowel disease and may be responsible for the impaired intestinal barrier (19).

    More widely, myrrh is used by practitioners for the treatment of bad breath, gum disease, canker sore, bleeding gums, wounds in the mouth, diarrhoea, mucus in the stool, worms, rectal fissure and haemorrhoids (3). The sesquiterpenes present in myrrh have been shown to be antimicrobial against Escherichia coli (6).

    Reproductive system

    Historically, myrrh has been used an emmenagogue (1). It’s astringent and anti-microbial actions are also used for vaginitis, leukorrhea, yeast infections, watery vaginal discharge and in parturition (3). A randomised controlled trial found that myrrh was more effective than frankincense (Boswellia spp.) at healing an episiotomy wound after birth (20).The sesquiterpenes present, have been shown in vitro to be anti-fungal against Candida albicans (6,21).

    Tincture of myrrh has been seen in a clinical setting to reduce the size of an ovarian cyst by half (22).

    Integumentary system

    Again, the astringent, antimicrobial and vulnerary actions make myrrh a useful herb in cases of eczema, abrasions, boils, wounds, spots and herpes (3). 

    Its antifungal action also makes it effective for athlete’s foot when its essential oil is combined with lavender essential oil in alcohol and applied to the skin (9).

    Endocrine system

    In vivo research has shown that myrrh in combination with haritaki (Terminalia chebula) can be beneficial to people with diabetes (23), where it is used regularly as a treatment in Saudi Arabia (2). The antidiabetic effect is thought to occur by decreasing gluconeogenesis and increasing the peripheral use of glucose (9).

    Musculoskeletal system

    Historically, when used with chilli (Capsicum annuum), myrrh has been found useful for arthritis(13). An in vivo study has shown that myrrh, combine with shown bai shao (Paeonia lactiflora), has anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving effects against osteoarthritis and a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study is now in progress to further test this (24).

  • Myrrh research

    Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)
    Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)

    Myrrh has been well-studied and evidence exists across the spectrum of research, including from a handful of randomised controlled trials (20), many of which are cited above in What the practitioners say. With this in mind, this section focuses on the most recent research around myrrh, showing that similar actions (in particular, regulating cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis in damaged cells) can be wide-ranging across various body systems and are making it a target for drug development (5).

    Myrrh ameliorates endometriosis by enhancing ER stress-related apoptotic cell death

    In vivo and in vitro results using an aqueous extract of myrrh have shown that it can suppress the growth of endometrial cells (25). The mechanism of action for this is thought to be via apoptosis from stressing the endoplasmic reticulum (25). 

    Anticancer effects of Commiphora myrrha

    The cyto-toxic effect of myrrh against colorectal cancer has been investigated using in vitro and in vivo methods (26). Myrrh significantly reduced the size of the tumour and also increased the survival time of mice with tumours via inhibiting tumour cell proliferation and promoting apoptosis (26). It also sensitised tumour cells to radiotherapy and chemotherapy illustrating the role herbs can play alongside other therapies (26).

    Other in vitro and in vivo studies have also shown that myrrh can arrest the cell cycle and induce apoptosis in breast cancer cells (27).

    Commiphora myrrha resin extract inhibits the biofilms and quorum sensing

    An in vitro study has found that an extract of myrrh reduced biofilm formation and the major phytochemical curzerene showed a promising interaction with proteins involved in quorum sensing (the chemical communication system used by bacteria to sense density and coordinate group behaviour) (28). Disrupting both quorum sensing and biofilm formation are important for new approaches in antimicrobial strategies, given the global rise of antimicrobial drug resistance (28).  

    Discovery of terpenoidal trimers gercadietanes A–G from Commiphora resins showing potential antidepressant properties in vivo

    Myrrh has been suggested as a therapeutic agent for inflammation induced depression, based on an in vivo study on mice (29). The terpenes in the resin showed anti-inflammatory activity and also increased anti-inflammatory cytokines and decreased pro-inflammatory ones (29).

  • Historical use of Myrrh

    Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)
    Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)

    The history of the use of myrrh is long and starts in the Middle East and north-eastern Africa — areas where it is found growing naturally (5). The most famous example is from the Bible with the Magi visiting baby Jesus with gifts of gold, myrrh and frankincense — all of which were known at the time to be medicinal (5). However, evidence of its use extends back further than this with King of Gezer (Palestine) requesting myrrh from Egypt to be used in healing from the 14th century BCE (12). 

    The earliest known use of myrrh particularly as an antimicrobial dates to 12th century BCE, when the Sumerians, who lived in an area roughly equivalent to modern-day Iraq, used it for treating tooth infections and intestinal worms (5).

    Historical records of the use of myrrh in China date back to the 7th century AD, it appears to have been used alongside frankincense for managing conditions where there is trauma, aches, swelling and joint problems (5).

    Historically, it became common in Britain and the USA (13,14), even appearing in rural account books from northern England in the 18th century (15). Its use has continued and it has been included in various pharmacopeia, including the British Pharmacopoeia (16) and German Commission E monographs (17).

  • Myrrh’s herbal actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

    Ayurvedic actions

    Chinese actions

  • Myrrh’s energetic qualities

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What can I use myrrh for?

    Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)
    Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha)

    Myrrh is warm, stimulating and astringent, which means it is indicated in conditions where mucosa and skin are relaxed and/or hypersecretion and dampness occur (3), examples include:

    • Gastrointestinal system: Pale, flabby and damp tongue; indigestion; heaviness; mucus in the stool
    • Respiratory system: Phlegm 
    • Reproductive system: Clear vaginal discharge, congested feeling in the pelvis (3).

    Myrrh is traditionally used for wound healing, digestive problems, arthritis/rheumatism (4).

    Clinical and in vitro studies have shown it is antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, vulnerary (4).

    Myrrh is antimicrobial and is used against bacterial infection (Streptococcus pyogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus), fungal infections (Candida albicans and Tinea pedis), viral infections (herpes simplex type 1, influenza type A) (5,6). It is also used for respiratory infections and nasal congestion (5). It is antiparasitic against Schistosoma, Heterophytes infection, snails: Bulinus truncates, Lymnaea cailliaudi, and Biomphalaria alexandrina  — which are intermediary hosts for trematode activity (5).

    Myrrh is used in many gastrointestinal conditions due to its anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and astringent properties. Indications for myrrh include: inflammatory bowel disease, leaky gut, diarrhoea, IBS, worms, indigestion, gas, gingivitis, mouth ulcers, gastric ulcers (3,7).

    Myrrh’s vulnerary and analgesic actions make it useful for skin conditions when applied topically. Its anti-inflammatory and analgesic actions mean it is also used for arthritis (3).

  • Did you know?

    In AD 74–76 Pliny recommended (Book 14, chapter 27) that myrrh was used to perfume wine jars and cellars, he also suggested that it was used for male hair removal (30).

  • Botanical description

    Myrrh is part of the Burseraceae family, which contains over 600 plants (2), including frankincense (Boswelia serrata) (5). The genus of Commiphora contains guggul (Commiphora mukul) (5).

    It is a small tree or shrub, with thick trunk and irregular, knotted, rough and thorny branches, that terminate in a sharp thorn (2,5). 

    The resin is used medicinally, and this is initially produced by the tree as a sap that hardens on contact with the air; the tree produces sap naturally and through intentional cutting of the bark (10,31).

  • Common names

    • Myrrh
    • Gum myrrh
    • Mo Yyao
    • Bdellium
    • Bol
    • Bola
    • Commiphora

  • Habitat

    Myrrh grows naturally over north-eastern Africa, southern Arabia and the Mediterranean basin (5,10). It grows on basaltic soil in very hot areas, and grows wild in the Arabian peninsula, Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia (2). It is cultivated in east and north Africa (2).

  • How to grow myrrh

    Myrrh can be grown from seed or hardwood cuttings at the end of the growing season (32). It requires a hot and dry climate, and needs a sunny location with well-draining soil (33). It is drought-tolerant and suitable for xeriscaping (landscaping method designed for water conservation) (32).

  • Herbal preparation of myrrh

    • Powder
    • Tincture
    • Infusion
    • Gargle/mouth wash
    • Infused oil (external)

  • Plant parts used

    Resin

  • Dosage

    • Tincture (1:5): 0.5–2 ml three times a day (2); 10–30 ml per week (7)
    • Fluid extract (1:1 | 90 %): 1–4 ml three times a day (9)
    • Infusion/decoction: 1–2 teaspoons of powdered myrrh in 1 cup of boiling water, infuse for 10–15 mins, three times a day (9)
    • Drop dosage: 1–10 drops of tincture (34)
    • Externally: Neat tincture can be applied, e.g., over sinuses (2,9)
    • Gargle/mouthwash: 5 ml in a glass of warm water, 5–10 drops tincture in a glass of water (2)
    • Dental powders: Powders should contain 10% powdered resins (9)

  • Constituents

    • Essential oils: Furanosesquiterpenes (curzereonon, furanodiene-6-one, furanoesudesma-1,3-diene), sesquiterpenes (curzene, germacrone), triterpenes, monoterpenes (2,7,9,35)
    • Gums (2,9,35)
    • Bitter (2,35)
    • Resin: (Commiphoric acid, commiphorinic acid, commiferin) (2,9,35)

    Please note: 90% extraction in alcohol largely removes the resins (7).

  • Myrrh recipe

    First aid salve

    A salve to be kept in a first aid kit, it is especially good for scrapes and grazes on knees and elbows. Make sure the wound is washed and cleaned, and then dress the wound with the salve applied to a gauze and keep in place with a bandage. Change the dressing daily.

    Ingredients

    • 80 ml myrrh infused oil 
    • 80 ml calendula flower infused oil
    • 40 ml yarrow infused oil
    • 40 ml gotu kola infused oil
    • 15–30 g bees wax

    How to make a myrrh salve

    • Follow the steps in this article: How to make herbal oils to make each of the infused oils, with the base oil of your choice. The myrrh should be ground to a powder before infusing it. 
    • The salve can be made by using the quantities above and then following the instructions in How to make a salve.
The sustainability of myrrh

The sustainability of myrrh

  • Safety

    • Has been long regarded as safe (2,3).
    • Not to be confused with guggul, which is a Commiphora species related to myrrh (35).
    • Avoid in pregnancy (7,9,35).
    • Essential oil can cause skin irritation/allergic dermatitis (2,3,7).

  • Interactions

    Theoretically, myrrh may have an additive effect with any diabetic medication (9,35).

    Myrrh may act as an antagonist to the anticoagulant effects of warfarin (2,7,35).

  • Contraindications

    None known (36).

  • Sustainability status of myrrh

    Myrrh has not yet been assessed as part of the IUCN Red List of threatened plants (32). However, given the concern over the closely-related sustainability of frankincense, attention is now turning to myrrh. In 2025, The American Herbal Products Association funded a three-year project to better understand the current harvesting practices of myrrh in eastern Africa (37).

    Harvesting of myrrh can occur in two ways, one where the tree exudes sap naturally and is considered ecologically friendly, and the other where the tree is slashed and people return periodically for harvesting the sap (37). The second method means that over-tapping and depleting the tree are highly likely to occur (37). Initial observation has shown that Ethiopian methods are mainly harvesting the naturally occurring sap, and Somaliland and Somalia extraction techniques are more akin to slash and returning periodically, however, a simple split along country lines is unlikely to give the full picture (37).

    Wider issues around communities and villages relying on the myrrh for employment as well as the desertification that can occur if trees are over-harvested and die out, also need to be considered when sourcing myrrh (38). 

    Ensure you purchase myrrh from companies that are transparent about the supply chain and have certified produce that offer ecological and social assurances, such asFairWild (39).

    Read our article on and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Myrrh is mainly wild-harvested and is imported from in eastern Africa. Many other species of myrrh (e.g., C. boranensis, C. habessinica, and C. corrugata.) are harvested in Ethiopia and can be sold under the name “myrrh” or “opoponax” (40). 

    Demand for myrrh is higher than the raw material on the market (41), meaning the potential for adulteration and/or unsustainable wild harvesting practices is high.

  • References

    1. Grieve M. A Modern Herbal. 1931. Accessed December 30, 2021. https://botanical.com/ 
    2. Fisher C. Materia Medica of Western Herbs. Aeon Books; 2018.
    3. Wood M. The Earthwise Herbal: A Complete Guide to Old World Medicinal Plants. One. North Atlantic Books; 2008.
    4. Stengler E, Huber R, Kowarschik S, Lüth VM. Anti-inflammatory properties of Boswellia frereana Birdw., Boswellia neglecta S.Moore, Boswellia rivae Engl., Boswellia sacra Flück., Boswellia serrata Roxb., Commiphora confusa Vollesen, Commiphora kataf (Forssk.) Engl. and Commiphora myrrha (T.Nees) Engl. extracts in viral and chronic respiratory inflammation. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2026;354:120500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2025.120500
    5. Batiha GES, Wasef L, Teibo JO, et al. Commiphora myrrh: a phytochemical and pharmacological update. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology. 2023;396(3):405-420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-022-02325-0
    6. Dolara P, Corte B, Ghelardini C, et al. Local anaesthetic, antibacterial and antifungal properties of sesquiterpenes from myrrh. Planta Medica. 2000;66(4):356-358. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2000-8532
    7. Thomsen M. The Phytotherapy Desk Reference. Aeon Books; 2022.
    8. Su S, Wang T, Duan JA, et al. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of different extracts of Commiphora myrrha. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2011;134(2):251-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.12.003
    9. Hoffman D. Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Healthy Arts Press; 2003.
    10. Khalil RM, Ghanem NB, Khairy H. Elucidation and valorization of the potent activity of Commiphora myrrha gum resin extract: antimicrobial and fibroblast wound healing activities. Scientific Reports. 2025;15(1):31839. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-17079-x
    11. Gebrehiwot M, Asres K, Bisrat D, Mazumder A, Lindemann P, Bucar F. Effects of resin and essential oil from Commiphora myrrha Engl. on wound healing. Ethiopian Pharmaceutical Journal. 2016;32:85-100. https://doi.org/10.4314/epj.v32i2.1
    12. Dafni A, Böck B. Medicinal plants of the Bible—revisited. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2019;15:57. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0338-8
    13. Thomson S. New Guide to Health ; or Botanic Family Physician : Containing a Complete System of Practice, upon a Plan Entirely New; with a Description of the Vegetables Made Use of, and Directions for Preparing and Administering Them to Cure Disease : To Which Is Add. 1834. https://archive.org/details/39744321.5884.emory.edu/page/59/mode/2up
    14. Cook J. The Natural History of Lac, Amber, and Myrrh : With a Plain Account of the Many Excellent Virtues These Three Medicinal Substances Are Naturally Possessed of, and Well Adapted for the Cure of Various Diseases Incident to the Human Body: And a Restorative Balsamic Tincture. Mr Woodfall, etc; 1770.
    15. Ward J. John Spedding’s Accounts of Horses used in the Whitehaven Collieries etc., from 1715 onwards. Transactions of the Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society. 1989;89:181-186.
    16. Department of Health. British Pharmacopoeia. III. The Stationery Office – MHRA; 2008.
    17. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, et al., eds. Goldenrod. In: The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicine. 1999. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/commission-e-monographs/monograph-approved-herbs/goldenrod/
    18. Stengler E, Huber R, Kowarschik S, Lüth VM. Anti-inflammatory properties of Boswellia frereana Birdw., Boswellia neglecta S.Moore, Boswellia rivae Engl., Boswellia sacra Flück., Boswellia serrata Roxb., Commiphora confusa Vollesen, Commiphora kataf (Forssk.) Engl. and Commiphora myrrha (T.Nees) Engl. extracts in viral and chronic respiratory inflammation. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2026;354:120500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2025.120500
    19. Hader H, Hering NA, Schulzke JD, Bücker R, Rosenthal R. Myrrh protects against IL-13-induced epithelial barrier breakdown in HT-29/B6 cells. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2023;14:1301800. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2023.1301800
    20. Faraji A, Aghdaki M, Hessami K, et al. Episiotomy wound healing by Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. and Boswellia carteri Birdw. in primiparous women: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2021;264:113396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.113396
    21. Alabdalall AH. Antifungal activity of Myrrh gum resin against pathogenic Candida spp. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2024;31(3):340-344. d https://doi.org/10.26444/aaem/192095
    22. Waddell G, ed. Plant Medicine: A Collection of the Teachings of Herbalists Christopher Hedley and Non Shaw. Aeon Books; 2023. Accessed November 26, 2023. 
    23. Sotoudeh R, Hadjzadeh MAR, Gholamnezhad Z, Aghaei A. The anti-diabetic and antioxidant effects of a combination of Commiphora mukul, Commiphora myrrha and Terminalia chebula in diabetic rats. Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine. 2019;9(5):454-464.
    24. Lee D, Kim SJ, Kim H. A 12 week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial for the evaluation of the efficacy and safety of HT083 on mild osteoarthritis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2020;99(28):e20907. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000020907
    25. Kim BS, Cho M, Han JH, et al. Myrrh ameliorates endometriosis by enhancing ER stress-related apoptotic cell death. Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine. 2026;31(4):85. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2026.13080
    26. Chien JH, Chang KF, Chen YC, Hsieh MC, Tsai NM. Anticancer effects of Commiphora myrrha extract on colorectal cancer through regulation of metastasis, cell cycle progression, and apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. Medical Oncology. 2025;42(12):547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12032-025-03050-3
    27. Huang H, Xie J, Wang F, et al. Commiphora myrrha n-hexane extract suppressed breast cancer progression through induction of G0/G1 phase arrest and apoptotic cell death by inhibiting the Cyclin D1/CDK4-Rb signaling pathway. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2024;15:1425157. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2024.1425157
    28. Al-Shabib NA, Husain FM, Abul Qais F, et al. Commiphora myrrha resin extract inhibits the biofilms and quorum sensing controlled virulence factors of Gram-negative foodborne bacterial pathogens. Frontiers in Microbiology. 16:1668863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1668863
    29. Li WF, Sura MB, Zhu SS, et al. Discovery of terpenoidal trimers gercadietanes A–G from Commiphora resins showing potential antidepressant properties in vivo. J Org Chem. 2026;91(10):3807-3816. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.joc.5c03211
    30. Ben-Yehoshua S, Borowitz C, Hanuš LO. Frankincense, myrrh, and balm of gilead: ancient spices of southern Arabia and Judea. In: Janick J, ed. Horticultural Reviews. Vol 39. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2012:1-76. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118100592.ch1
    31. Bhattacharjee MK, Alenezi T. Antibiotic in myrrh from Commiphora molmol preferentially kills nongrowing bacteria. Future Science OA. 2020;6(4):FSO458. https://doi.org/10.2144/fsoa-2019-0121
    32. PFAF. Commiphora myrrha Myrrh, Myrrh Gum. Plants for a future – Plant Database. 2026. Accessed March 29, 2026. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Commiphora+myrrha
    33. Botanika. 10 Tips for growing mukal myrrh seeds. Botanika. February 1, 2025. Accessed March 29, 2026. https://www.seedsforgarden.com/blogs/10-tips-for-growing-mukal-myrrh-seeds/10-tips-for-growing-mukal-myrrh-seeds
    34. Wood M. The Book of Herbal Wisdom: Using Plants as Medicines. North Atlantic Books; 1997.
    35. Natural Medicines. Myrrh. Natural Medicines Pro. 2025. Accessed March 29, 2026. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/Data/ProMonographs/Myrrh
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    37. Krawiec S. Understanding the myrrh trade | Nutritional Outlook – Supplement, Food & Beverage Manufacturing Trends. Nutritional Outlook. 2025;28(2). Accessed March 29, 2026. https://www.nutritionaloutlook.com/view/understanding-the-myrrh-trade
    38. Wilson E. Myrrh: Sustainable and ethical? truthpaste. 2021. Accessed March 29, 2026. https://truthpaste.co.uk/blogs/behind-the-truth/myrrh-sustainable-and-ethical
    39. FairWild. Myrrh. FairWild Foundation. 2017. Accessed March 29, 2026. https://www.fairwild.org/ingredients/myrrh
    40. M. L, H. K, Eds. Opportunities and Challenges for Sustainable Production and Marketing of Gums and Resins in Ethiopia. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR); 2011. https://doi.org/10.17528/cifor/003478
    41. Engels G, Brinkmann J. Myrrh. HerbalGram. 2012;93:1-4.

Meet our herbal experts

Suzi Richer
- Herbalist, Researcher

Suzi Richer works in her own practices as a medical herbalist and environmental archaeologist. She is also a writer and researcher.

Read Suzi's articles

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (e.g. from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Bland
Blandness refers to a mild, plain, non-stimulating taste and an energetic action that neither irritates nor strongly activates physiological processes. In traditional Chinese medicine, bland substances gently drain dampness and promote urination, relieving excess fluid whilst also preserving qi and yin. Western traditional medicine similarly associates healing with bland substances that avoid extremes of heat or cold and promote restoration of balance. Blandness signifies regulation by supporting elimination and normal tissue function without forceful stimulation, helping to create a gentle and balanced state of homeostasis.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot

Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradish or wasabi, generate warmth when taken.

In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage.

Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold.

Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol.
Neutral
Neutral herbs are characterised as by balanced temperature and energetics — neither warming nor cooling, nor strongly dispersing nor consolidating, and are, therefore, used across a wide spectrum of constitutional and pathological states. In Chinese medicine, this level, calm quality supports the centre, and gently strengthens digestion, regulates fluids, and resolves damp without provoking too much heat or cold. In Western medicine, neutral herbs are regarded as equal in relation to hot/cold or damp/dry and capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium. Neutral herbs can be seen as moderating reactivity, and supporting homeostasis rather than forcing change.
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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