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Agnus castus or chasteberry is the prime women’s remedy

Agnus castus

Vitex agnus-castus

Lamiaceae

This is the favourite women's remedy among herbal practitioners in the European tradition with multiple uses for menstrual and premenopausal problems.

Last reviewed 21/08/2021

Sustainability status

Not currently on risk lists but complete data may be missing on the status of the species. Read more in our sustainability guide.

Potential replacement(s): Barberry,

Sustainability Status
Key benefits
  • Premenstrual syndrome
  • Menstrual disturbances
  • Perimenopausal symptoms
  • Acne

  • How does it feel?

    The most striking feature of agnus castus in its habitat is the powerful and very evocative pungent, warm, heavy scent that emanates from the trees in the hot sun, and which is also released when crushing the fruits in your hands. 

    Upon tasting, agnus castus delivers a powerful kick. There is an initial hot, peppery flavour, followed by a bitter taste that persists for some minutes and a subtle transient sweetness. The peppery flavour leaves a tingle on the tongue for a few hours following ingestion.  

    Agnus castus comes across as a strong sensory agent, suggesting its potency which is perhaps reflective of the relatively low doses used in clinical practice. In ancient traditions, it is considered ‘drying’, appropriate to damp conditions as characterised by congestive states including fluid retention.

    Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)
    Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)
    Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)

  • What can I use it for?

    Agnus Castus (Vitex agnus-castus L.)
    Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)

    This ancient Mediterranean female reproductive remedy has become more familiar in modern herbalism, and is particularly well known in Germany, where it was popularised early in the 20th century. Its predominant application is in relieving symptoms of tension occurring either before a period or during perimenopause. However, it has been used for a range of gynaecological conditions, including premenstrual syndrome (PMS), irregular menstruation, fluid retention, swollen breasts and to facilitate fertility through hormonal regulation (1).

    Agnus castus has a dopaminergic action on the anterior pituitary gland and mimics dopamine, which is the key inhibitor of prolactin. It, therefore, helps to reduce high prolactin levels, which are responsible for a range of hormonal symptoms, including menstrual irregularities and swollen breasts (1,2). Agnus castus has also been used successfully in treating acne, especially when it’s caused by hormonal fluctuations (3).

    Agnus castus is regarded as a nervine owing to its relaxing and calming qualities. It is often included in preparations for people suffering from premenstrual and perimenopausal anxiety and low mood (4).

  • Into the heart of agnus castus

    Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)
    Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)

    Energetically, agnus castus is considered warming and drying and, therefore, can be applied to damp or cool conditions, including fluid retention.

    Agnus castus has long been regarded as a woman’s remedy, and many of its traditional uses are now confirmed through modern research. It is indicated in a variety of menstrual disorders including PMS, premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), fibroids, polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), endometriosis, ovarian cysts and menopausal symptoms (1,4). It is an hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) regulator and is also progesteronic, helping to increase fertility, regulate menstruation and reduce premenstrual symptoms (1,5). Agnus castus has also been shown to improve libido and sexual function in women, especially when this is related to hormonal imbalances (6).

    Through supporting progesterone production, agnus castus can indirectly support the balance of oestrogen and can help to reduce oestrogen excess and associated symptoms including irregular menstruation, mood swings and fluid retention (1,7).

    As a result of its effect on prolactin secretion, in low doses agnus castus has been shown to increase prolactin levels and promote milk supply acting as a galactagogue; whereas in higher doses it has been shown to decrease prolactin levels and reduce oversupply of breast milk (1). This demonstrates the importance of dose when considering the desired effect of the plant.

    Agnus castus also has anti-androgenic actions and can help to reduce excess androgen hormones in patients with PCOS (8).

    It has a mood-balancing and nervine action, helping to regulate mood swings especially when they are exacerbated by hormonal fluctuations during menstruation and menopause (1,5).

    It is worth reflecting on the notion of a women’s remedy. Women have historically been the healers, for themselves, their children and wider community. The ‘wise woman’ is more than a turn of phrase. Women chose the remedies that women needed, and they valued and shared those that worked. From time to time, exceptional ones emerge into the wider materia medica across a whole culture — shatavari in India, dong quai in China, and helonias root in North America (unfortunately now a threatened species and no longer recommended). In southern Europe, that women’s remedy is agnus castus.

  • Traditional uses

    Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)
    Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)

    Agnus castus has traditionally been associated with chastity, as is indicative of its common name ‘chaste tree’, originating from the Greek ‘chaste’, meaning pure. It was traditionally used to suppress libido in men, and was used as such by monks to suppress their sexual urges, hence its other name ‘monk’s pepper’ (9–11). The roman physician Dioscorides describes its use to fend off wolves, indicative of its traditional and spiritual associations with protection.

    The mediaeval herbalist Parkinson noted that “it also procureth milke in womens breasts, it procureth their courses [menstrual flow] and the urine stopped…” and ”the decoction of the herbe and seede is very good for women troubled with the paines of the mother, or inflammations of the parts“(12). In reinforcement of its association also with chastity he also noted that it “refraineth also the instigations to Venery in any manner used and taken“ (12).

    Its traditional reputation was always intriguingly paradoxical, a point that modern herbal practitioners often take to point to an amphoteric effect. Thus, Parkinson takes Galen to task: “although so famous a writer and Physician contraryeth himselfe in this one place…, for having affirmed before that the seede hereof is hot and dry…, he saith that the seede of Vitex doth refraine Venerous desires, and giveth little nourishment to the body, and that because it is cooling and drying” (12,13). He concludes that of the two positions the temperament of agnus castus is “a meane between them both“ (12). As noted from its organoleptic assessment, this is an appropriate conclusion for a remedy that is both hot and bitter.

    In nineteenth century North America, the Eclectics, a leading group of doctors who had revived herbal approaches, did recognise the complexity of this remedy and as well as stabilising menstruation, encouraging lactation and “repressing sexual passions”, applied it also to impotence, sexual melancholia, sexual irritability with nervousness, melancholia or mild dementia (14–16). This hints at an amphoteric, tonic effect across a range of hormonal disturbances.

    Earlier there had been other uses recommended. In Galenic medical texts, as noted above, agnus castus is classified as “hot and dry in the third degree” (i.e. among the strongest of this category) suggesting that it was appropriate for any cold-damp condition. Even earlier, in Hippocratic texts from the 4th century BC, as well as its use for “issue of the blood” and “helping the afterbirth come away”, agnus castus was recommended for the treatment of wounds, inflammatory conditions, and swellings of the spleen (liver disease). The latter is a classic damp-heat problem that is consistent with its bitterness.

  • Traditional actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

  • Traditional energetic actions

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What practitioners say

    Reproductive systemReproductive system

    Agnus castus is a favoured reproductive remedy amongst Western medical herbalists. It is used in a wide range of menstrual and also perimenopausal indications, now with increasing focus on conditions of high prolactin levels and progesterone deficiency (e.g., cystic hyperplasia of the endometrium). These include PMS , especially with fluid retention and breast swelling, and other premenstrually-aggravated symptoms, like sleeplessness and mood changes (1).

    Agnus castus has demonstrated an ability to regulate disturbed menstrual cycles and periods, including lengthened or shortened cycles, and loss of periods (where pregnancy and other medical conditions have been ruled out). Here, its effects seem to be greater where the menstrual disturbances are linked to corpus luteum deficiency — i.e. when the corpus luteum doesn’t produce enough progesterone during the luteal phase (17). . Ovulation tracking using daily temperature checks, cycle tracking and mucus testing can be useful in identifying menstrual disturbances.

    Agnus castus has been shown to reduce cases of bleeding between periods (metrorrhagia) as a result of IUD (17).  Further reproductive indications for this herb include PCOS,  alongside other remedies to manage the insulin resistance element of this condition, such as barberry (Berberis vulgaris)or gymnema (Gymnema sylvestre). It can also provide symptomatic relief for endometriosis and fibroids. Stress is a contributing factor to raised prolactin levels, which also indicates agnus castus due to its calming nervine action (17).

    Infertility is also a traditional indication for agnus castus. In this case, it is most appropriate if there are problems with conception linked to disrupted menstrual cycles; for example, anovulation or issues with implantation.As women go through the menopause they may find that premenstrual patterns merge into a wider and longer sometimes congestive pattern, as though the PMS is taking over. This would be an instance to consider agnus castus as part of a treatment protocol (11).

    Through its dopaminergic action, agnus castus can inhibit prolactin secretion which is helpful in treating hyperprolactinaemia and in cases where prolactin is elevated — for example,pituitary tumours (2).

    Skin

    Agnus castus can help to manage acne as an internal remedy, as it can help to regulate hormones that contribute to acne exacerbations, which is particularly found in individuals with PCOS (1,4).

  • Research

    Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)
    Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)

    Chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus): Pharmacology and clinical indications

    The research evidence suggests that agnus castus inhibits the hormone prolactin via dopaminergic activity in the anterior pituitary. A decrease of prolactin will affect the levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), oestrogen in women and testosterone in men. In terms of the menstrual cycle this has the effect of enhancing corpus luteal development (thereby correcting a relative progesterone deficiency) normalising the menstrual cycle, and encouraging ovulation (18).

    Vitex agnus-castus extracts for female reproductive disorders: A systematic review of clinical trials

    A systematic review analysed twelve randomised controlled trials (RCT) on agnus castus for reproductive conditions. One trial found agnus castus to be superior to placebo for reducing TRH-stimulated prolactin levels and increasing progesterone, thereby regulating the menstrual cycle. A further RCT showed agnus castus to be comparable to bromocriptine in reducing serum prolactin and improving cyclic mastalgia. The mechanism of action was found to be dopaminergic, and by agnus castus interacting with the D2 receptors in the anterior pituitary gland (19).

    Vitex agnus castus for the treatment of cyclic mastalgia: A systematic review and meta-analysis

    A meta-analysis and systematic review of 25 clinical trials was carried out to evaluate the effect of agnus castus on cyclic mastalgia in women aged between 18 and 45. The typical dosage was between 20–40 mg per day over a period of three months. Results showed agnus castus was significantly more effective than placebo in reducing breast pain in six RCTs and it also reduced serum prolactin levels (20).

    Polycystic ovaries and herbal remedies: A systematic review

    This review examined studies published between 1990 to 2021 on medicinal plants in the treatment of PCOS. The review found that agnus castus reduced hirsutism by lowering levels of testosterone and androgens (21).

  • Did you know?

    Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)
    Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)

    In ancient Greece, the tree was called agnos, meaning holy, pure and chaste. They dedicated it to their mother goddess Demeter. At the festival of Thesmophoria held in her honour, Greek women, who aimed to remain chaste for the occasion, strewed their beds with branches of the tree, and wore garlands of it in the day, so that the aroma might subdue the ardour of any would-be suitor (22).

    The ancient Romans dedicated the vitex tree to the goddess Hera, the protector of motherhood and marriage, who was said to have been born under one. Roman wives were also said to use the leaves to reduce the libido of their husbands. Vestal virgins carried twigs of the tree as a symbol of chastity).

    Another common name for agnus castus is ‘monk’s pepper’. As well as referring to its peppery taste, this was said to support its reputation for suppressing “the lusts of the flesh” in monastic institutions (22).

Additional information

  • Botanical description

    Agnus castus or chasteberry is the fruit (drupe) of a shrubby plant, which grows to 3–5 m in height producing large dark green leaves radiating from a long, hairy stalk.

    The shoots terminate in a slender spike and are composed of whorls of violet flowers. The black spherical berries are lignified ovaries of two carpels each containing one seed, roughly ovoid about three by four millimetres, dark-grey in colour, yielding when crushed a dark powder of characteristic aroma and fragrant, slightly acrid and bitter peppery taste (25).

  • Common names

    • Chasteberry
    • Chaste tree
    • Monk’s pepper (Eng)
    • Keuschlammfrüchte (Ger)
    • Schäffmülle (Ger)
    • Agneau chaste (Fr)
    • Arbre au poivre (Fr)
    • Gatillier (Fr)

  • Safety

    In general, agnus castus is well tolerated. Occasional mild and reversible nausea, headache, gastrointestinal disturbances, menstrual disorders, acne, pruritus, and erythematous rash have been reported in large studies (13). Among 352 nursing mothers given agnus cactus tincture, 15 cases of skin problems and some cases of early menstrual period occurred (14).

  • Interactions

    Avoid in conjunction with HRT, progesterone drugs and OCP and caution is advised alongside contraceptive medication (5,24).

  • Contraindications

    Caution is advised with individuals with oestrogen and progesterone sensitive tumours (5).

  • Preparations

    • Tincture
    • Dried
    • Capsule
    • Liquid extract

  • Dosage

    Often used for a maximum of 3–6 months and then reviewed with the practitioner. 

    Dried / Capsule

    Between 200–500 mg per day for most purposes, increasing to 2.5 g for short term use, e.g., for acne. In more severe cases, a higher dose is often prescribed— ranging between 1000–2500 mg per day on a short term basis (1,23).

    Tincture (1:5 | 25%)

    1–5 ml (20–60 drops)  in a little water per day (1,24). Correct dosage is important with regard to agnus castus as in low doses, it increases prolactin levels, and in higher doses it decreases them. Some practitioners will recommend taking agnus castus during the first half of the menstrual as a separate mix on its own, whilst others will include vitex in a herbal formulation to support throughout the month (1,24). A good rule of thumb is to start on a low dose and increase accordingly, if necessary. 

    Infusion

    One tsp of dried berries, infused for 10–15 minutes in a cup of boiling water, strained and drank three times a day (1,24).

  • Plant parts used

    Fruit (berries)

  • Constituents

    • Essential oil: Up to 0.7%, containing monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, such as limonene, sabinene, 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), beta-caryophyllene and trans-beta-farnesene
    • Flavonoids: Vitexin and orientin and methoxylated flavones casticin, eupatorin and penduletin
    • Iridoid glycosides: Aucubin and agnuside
    • Diterpenes: Labdane and halimane types (clerodadienols) including rotundifuran, vitexilactone, vitetrifolin B and C, and viteagnusins A to I

    The diterpenes bind to dopamine D2 receptors in the anterior pituitary and appear to be the constituents responsible for decreasing serum prolactin. The flavone casticin may also contribute to this effect (17).

Agnus castus (Vitex agnus-castus)

  • Habitat

    Native of the Mediterranean region and Central Asia. It is one of the few temperate-zone species of Vitex, which is on the whole a genus of tropical and sub-tropical flowering plants.

  • Sustainability

    NatureServe database states that in relation to endangered status this plant is unranked. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species database states an assessment was made in 2012 on global prevalence of Vitex agnus-castus in the wild, with the results listing the plant as ‘data deficient’ (27,28).

    Habitat loss and over-harvesting from the wild are two of the biggest threats faced by medicinal plant species. There are an increasing number of well-known herbal medicines at risk of extinction. We must, therefore, ensure that we source our medicines with sustainability in mind.

    The herb supplement industry is growing at a rapid rate and until recent years a vast majority of medicinal plant produce in global trade was of unknown origin. There are some very real and urgent issues surrounding sustainability in the herb industry. These include environmental factors that affect the medicinal viability of herbs, the safety of the habitats that they are taken from, as well as the welfare of workers in the trade.

    The botanical supply chain efforts for improved visibility (transparency and traceability) into verifiably sustainable production sites around the world is now certificated through the emergence of credible international voluntary sustainability standards (VSS). 

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Herbal medicines are often very safe to take; however, their safety and efficacy can be jeopardised by quality issues. So, it is important to buy herbal medicines from a reputable supplier, from sources known to test their herbs to ensure there is no contamination, adulteration or substitution with incorrect plant matter, as well as ensuring that recognised marker compounds are at appropriate levels in the herbs.

    Some important quality assurances to look for are certified organic labelling, the correct scientific/botanical name, and the availability of information from the supplier about ingredient origins. A supplier should be able to tell you where the herbs have come from, what contaminants are not in the herb, and what the primary compounds are.

  • How to grow

    Agnus cactus prefers a well-drained soil in full sun. Soil types: loam, chalk or sandy soils. In frost-prone areas with shelter from the cold and from drying winds. Best grown near a south or west-facing wall. Vitex will grow well in a sunny garden flower bed or border.

  • Recipe

    Premenstrual mood support tea

    This recipe can be made during the luteal phase in the lead up to menstruation to support emotional changes and fluctuations in mood. This tea is designed to provide balance and support for symptoms of PMS including stress, anger or anxiety.

    Ingredients

    • 1 tsp agnus castus berries
    • 1 tbsp dried rose petals
    • 0.5 tsp dried motherwort
    • 1 tsp dried ceylon cinnamon
    • 2 cardamom pods
    • Teapot
    • Filtered boiled water

    How to make an agnus castus tea

    • Crush the cardamom pods to release the volatile oils and grind the agnus castus berries.
    • Boil the kettle with freshly filtered water
    • Place all the ingredients in a teaspot and cover with the boiling water
    • Steep for five minutes
    • Strain and drink up to three cups a day

  • References

    1. Bone K, Mills S. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. 2nd ed. Edinburgh Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier; 2013.
    2. Puglia L, Lowry JV, Tamagno G. Vitex agnus castus effects on hyperprolactinaemia. Frontiers in Endocrinology. 2023;14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1269781 
    3. Nasri H, Bahmani M, Shahinfard N, Moradi Nafchi A, Saberianpour S, Rafieian Kopaei M. Medicinal Plants for the Treatment of Acne Vulgaris: A Review of Recent Evidences. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology. 2015;8(11). https://doi.org/10.5812/jjm.25580 
    4. Mcintyre A. Complete Herbal Tutor: The Definitive Guide to the Principles and Practices of Herbal Medicine (Second Edition). Aeon Books Limited; 2019.
    5. Thomsen M. Phytotherapy Desk Reference. 6th ed. Aeon Books; 2022.
    6. Shaw S, Wyatt K, Campbell J, Ernst E, Thompson-Coon J. Vitex agnus castus for premenstrual syndrome. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Published online March 2, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd004632.pub2 
    7. Feyzollahi Z, Mohseni Kouchesfehani H, Jalali H, Eslimi-Esfahani D, Hosseini AS. Effect of Vitex agnus-castus ethanolic extract on hypothalamic KISS-1 gene expression in a rat model of polycystic ovary syndrome. Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine. 2021;11(3):292. Accessed November 14, 2024. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8140208/ 
    8. National Centre for Complementary and Integrative Health. Chasteberry. NCCIH. Published July 2020. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/chasteberry 
    9. Dioscorides P. De Materia Medica. Osbaldeston TA, Wood RPA, trans. Johannesburg, South Africa: Ibidis Press; 2000.
    10. Grieve M. A Modern Herbal. Vol 1. London, UK: Jonathan Cape; 1931.
    11. Hoffmann D. Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press; 2003.
    12. Parkinson J. Theatrum Botanicum: The Theater of Plants. London, UK: Tho. Cotes; 1640.
    13. Galen. On the Temperaments of Simple Drugs. In: Kühn CG, ed. Claudii Galeni Opera Omnia. Vol 11. Leipzig, Germany: Knobloch; 1826.
    14. King J. The American Eclectic Dispensatory. Cincinnati, OH: Moore, Wilstach & Baldwin; 1866.
    15. Felter HW, Lloyd JU. King’s American Dispensatory. 18th ed. Cincinnati, OH: Ohio Valley Co; 1898.
    16. Ellingwood F. American Materia Medica, Therapeutics and Pharmacognosy. Chicago, IL: Ellingwood’s Therapeutist; 1919.
    17. Yavarikia P, Shahnazi M, Hadavand Mirzaie S, Javadzadeh Y, Lutfi R. Comparing the effect of mefenamic Acid and vitex agnus on intrauterine device induced bleeding. Journal of caring sciences. 2013;2(3):245-254. https://doi.org/10.5681/jcs.2013.030 
    18. Wuttke W, Jarry H, Christoffel V, Spengler B, Seidlová-Wuttke D. Chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus) – Pharmacology and clinical indications. Phytomedicine. 2003;10(4):348-357. https://doi.org/10.1078/094471103322004866 
    19. Van Die M, Burger H, Teede H, Bone K. Vitex agnus-castus Extracts for Female Reproductive Disorders: A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials. Planta Medica. 2012;79(07):562-575. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0032-1327831 
    20. Ooi SL, Watts S, McClean R, Pak SC. Vitex Agnus-Castus for the Treatment of Cyclic Mastalgia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Women’s Health (2002). 2020;29(2):262-278. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2019.7770 
    21. Manouchehri A, Abbaszadeh S, Ahmadi M, Nejad FK, Bahmani M, Dastyar N. Polycystic ovaries and herbal remedies: A systematic review. JBRA Assist Reprod. 2023;27(1):85-91. Published 2023 Mar 30. https://doi.org/10.5935/1518-0557.20220024  
    22. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development; Chasteberry. PubMed. Published 2006. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501807/ 
    23. Natural Medicines Database. Vitex Agnus Castus. naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com. Published 2024. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/databases/food 
    24. Fisher C. Materia Medica of Western Herbs. Aeon Books; 2018.
    25. RHS. Vitex agnus-castus | chaste tree Shrubs/RHS Gardening. Published 2025. https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/43844/vitex-agnus-castus/details 
    26. Royal Botanical Gardens Kew. Vitex agnus-castus L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science. Plants of the World Online. Published 2025. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:865568-1 
    27. Nature Serve Explorer. Vitex Agnus Castus. Natureserve.org. Published 2025. Accessed June 11, 2025. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.130830/Vitex_agnus-castus 
    28. Wilson B, Khela S. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Vitex agnus-castus. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Published October 3, 2017. Accessed June 11, 2025. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/203350/177441757 

Related herbs

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Lady’s mantle

Barberry (Berberis vulgaris)

Barberry

Related conditions

Premenstrual Syndrome PMS

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (eg from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot
Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradich or wasabi, generate warmth when taken. In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage. Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold. .
Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol. .
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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