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Echinacea is most widely known for its use as an immune support

Echinacea

Echinacea purpurea / E. angustifolia

Asteraceae

During the early 20th century, echinacea was the most popular remedy in the USA for managing infections and was only eclipsed by the arrival of antibiotics after the Second World War.

Last reviewed 02/08/2024

Sustainability status

At risk from overharvesting and habitat loss. Read more in our sustainability guide.

Sustainability Status
Key benefits
  • Prevention against upper respiratory infections
  • Persistent and chronic infections
  • Wound healing
  • As a mouthwash

  • How does it feel?

    Echinacea remedies come in many different forms, with two dominant species (E. angustifolia and E. purpurea), and sometimes a third (E. pallida). Other species are sometimes encountered, however there are significant levels of adulteration with completely different species. It is very important to first locate a reputable supplier with a good quality product. Then having been assured that the echinacea is of good quality there will still be a range of forms and tastes to encounter.

    In North American tradition the benchmark was provided by the root of echinacea angustifolia, as this has the strongest characteristic ‘tingle’ effect, but it is also harder to grow in commercial quantities. Particularly in Europe, the leaves and aerial parts of echinacea purpurea are most common; the root of that species is the most widely sold worldwide (1).

    To get the strongest impact try to obtain a product made from E. angustifolia root. The effect of even a small taste is dramatic! The first impact is fiery, a quick very sharp astringency that covers all surfaces of the mouth, even the lips. Thereafter follows waves of sour and bitter tingling, and a very persistent long acrid, dry astringent aftertaste, leading to reflex increased salivation.

    The aerial parts of E. purpurea  have a more subtle taste, initially sweet, then some bitterness and a little tingling and astringency. The root of E. purpurea will be somewhere in between.

    The tingling effect is produced by alkylamides and the subtle sweetness by polysaccharides. Both have been implicated in helping to improve the body’s defences (2,3).

    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)
    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)

  • What can I use it for?

    Echinacea (Echinacea angustifolia)
    Echinacea (Echinacea angustifolia)

    Echinacea can be used as a preventative for those who are prone to upper respiratory problems like frequent colds, sore throats, sinusitis, middle ear pain, or viral infections like flu (2,3,4).

    Echinacea is the herbal practitioner’s favourite for any infectious condition, where it is seen to support balanced immune responses, including moderating over-reactions (the idea that it could worsen autoimmune problems for example is based on a misunderstanding of its activity). Importantly however, infections should be treated with due respect and echinacea should not be a substitute for expert medical help. Consider it a great complement to frontline conventional treatments, becoming more important as more infections return or are resistant to standard antibiotic and other prescriptions (2,3,4).

    It has local action in other areas, and forms brilliant mouthwash for any inflammation in the mouth, throat and gums. It is a useful remedy applied externally to boils, carbuncles and abscesses, and as a douche for vaginal infections (2,3,4).

    Into the heart of (can include information like the energetics and essence of the plant)
    Echinacea is best understood as defending from the outside in, supporting immune function and reducing inflammation and infection by mobilising defences on mucosal surfaces (5).

    It contains constituents known as isobutylamides, which are types of alkylamides. They act as insecticide defences for the plant and are found particularly in the roots. They can be clearly identified through tasting good quality echinacea, as they create a ‘tingling’ or numbing effect upon the tongue. From laboratory studies it appears they may directly influence inflammatory cytokine production among defensive white blood cells found close to mucosal surfaces. Among other possible mechanisms they activate a type of cannabinoid receptor (CB2) that is involved in immune and inflammatory modulation (6,7).

    Echinacea is considered as one of the primary remedies for assisting the body in clearing infection and strengthening the overall efficiency of the immune system. Echinacea reduces the severity and duration of symptoms, whilst also helping the body to deal with infection and stimulate the immune response. It will effectively target microbial, bacterial and viral infections throughout the body, but has a specific focus within the upper respiratory system and in conditions such as cold and flu, tonsillitis and laryngitis (3,4,8).

    Echinacea is effective where the immune system has become compromised by being run-down as a result of stress or over-work.

  • Into the heart of echinacea

    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)
    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)

    Echinacea is best understood as defending from the outside in, supporting immune function and reducing inflammation and infection by mobilising defences on mucosal surfaces (5).

    It contains constituents known as isobutylamides, which are types of alkylamides. They act as insecticide defences for the plant and are found particularly in the roots. They can be clearly identified through tasting good quality echinacea, as they create a ‘tingling’ or numbing effect upon the tongue. From laboratory studies it appears they may directly influence inflammatory cytokine production among defensive white blood cells found close to mucosal surfaces. Among other possible mechanisms they activate a type of cannabinoid receptor (CB2) that is involved in immune and inflammatory modulation (6,7).

    Echinacea is considered as one of the primary remedies for assisting the body in clearing infection and strengthening the overall efficiency of the immune system. Echinacea reduces the severity and duration of symptoms, whilst also helping the body to deal with infection and stimulate the immune response. It will effectively target microbial, bacterial and viral infections throughout the body, but has a specific focus within the upper respiratory system and in conditions such as cold and flu, tonsillitis and laryngitis (3,4,8).Echinacea is effective where the immune system has become compromised by being run-down as a result of stress or over-work.

  • Traditional uses

    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)
    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)

    The roots of echinacea come with a formidable reputation from the annals of the settler tradition in North America, with one writer M.R Gilmore observing the native population using it as a “remedy for more ailments than any other plant”. In particular, it was recommended for  snake bites and other venomous creatures (to the extent that one researcher publicly volunteered to allow himself to be bitten by rattlesnakes to prove the point to his colleagues!). It is also used for infected and poisonous conditions generally, to treat burns and wounds, and for toothache and sore throats. Septic problems were widely treated with nothing more than echinacea, and most modern herbalists would go far to ensure a good supply (9,10).

    The Native Americans and the 19th century Eclectic physicians who adopted their use of echinacea, preferred E. angustifolia root. This type  is high in alkylamides that impart a persistent tingling sensation in the mouth and stimulate the flow of saliva, long considered a sign of good quality (and likely to be a key part of its reputation) (1).

    The worldwide reputation of echinacea was cemented when the German homoeopathic physician Dr Madaus visited the USA in the 1930’s and observed that it was the most popular home remedy for infections across the country. Probably because of the difficulty of mass cultivation of echinacea angustifolia, he created a new prescription medicine  using the aerial parts of E. purpurea (11).

  • Traditional actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

  • Traditional energetic actions

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What practitioners say

    Respiratory systemRespiratory system 

    Echinacea is used to fend off tendencies to cold, flu, tonsillitis, pharyngitis, laryngitis, general mucous and sinus congestion. The immune stimulating and antimicrobial properties of echinacea are focussed on throat surfaces and immediately underlying lymphatic tissues, which is where most upper respiratory battles are waged (3,5). The most effective way to take echinacea for these conditions is at the first onset of symptoms, and every two hours thereafter. It can also be applied to more chronic conditions including chronic respiratory tract infections or whooping cough (3,5). 

    Immune system

    Echinacea works mainly in innate immunity (rather than the acquired immunity of antibody production) and is appropriate for any acute and chronic infections, whether due to bacterial, viral, protozoal or other organisms. It is likely to be particularly effective in infections on or near accessible surfaces, including the upper gut wall, though has also been used to modulate immune responses including in moderating allergies and hypersensitivity reactions (8). Its antifungal properties also indicate its use in the treatment of Candida and thrush. 

    Echinacea works by stimulating macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells and T and B lymphocyte activity. As a result, it can be applied in cases of chronic low immunity and repeated infections as well to support convalescence and recovery from post viral fatigue (12).

    External

    Echinacea is especially effective as a mouthwash for gum disease where the tingle factor from the alkylamides is most valued. It has traditionally been used to bathe infected and open wounds, bites or poisonings, especially when healing is impaired. It has also been used for hot and irritated skin conditions such as eczema and psoriasis, and as a douche for vaginal infections (4).

  • Research

    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)
    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)

    In Europe, it is traditionally the aerial parts of Echinacea purpurea which are used and the evidence base is largely linked to this version. 

    Echinacea for preventing and treating the common cold

    This review was carried out to investigate whether echinacea preparations were effective in the treatment of the common cold. The search was conducted on randomised clinical trials from 1946 to 2013. A total of 24 double blind trials with 4631 participants met the inclusion criteria. The authors favoured the aerial parts of Echinacea purpurea: “Our exploratory meta-analyses suggest that at least some echinacea preparations may reduce the relative risk of catching a cold by 10% to 20%”, however the evidence was not robust enough to be deemed clinically relevant(11).

    This review points out a familiar complaint among reviewers of the evidence: that they could not well distinguish between echinacea products (11).  

    An earlier, and more positive Cochrane review by some of the same authors had pointed in favour of Echinacea purpurea aerial parts (14). However, a later meta-analysis by other reviewers also did not differentiate between echinacea preparations (13).

    Echinacea for the prevention and treatment of upper respiratory tract infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis

    A double blind placebo controlled trial was carried out to identify whether a standardised echinacea formulation is effective in the prevention of respiratory and other symptoms associated with long-haul flights. A total of 175 adults took part. The participants were travelling from Australia, to America, Europe, or Africa for a period of 1–5 weeks on commercial flights via economy class. 

    The subjects were given echinacea (root extract, standardised to 4.4 mg alkylamides) or placebo tablets. Participants were surveyed before, immediately after travel, and at four weeks after travel. 

    The study concluded that supplementation with standardised echinacea tablets, if taken before and during travel, may have preventive effects against respiratory tract infections and related symptoms during travel involving long-haul flights (15).

    Echinacea reduces antibiotic usage in children through respiratory tract infection prevention: A randomised, blinded, controlled clinical trial

    This randomised, blinded, controlled clinical trial investigated the efficacy of echinacea in preventing respiratory tract infections (RTIs) and secondary bacterial infections thereby reducing antibiotic usage in children. Echinaforce ® junior tablets equivalent to 400 mg or vitamin C as control were given three times daily for prevention to children between 4–12 years old. The results showed children taking echinacea had fewer cold days (429) compared to those taking vitamin C (602) and also exhibited fewer symptoms.

    Echinacea reduced RTI episodes by 32.5% and a reduction of 76.3% in children needing antibiotics. Adverse effects were fewer in the echinacea group than the vitamin C group. It concludes that echinacea is effective in preventing and reducing RTIs and the need for antibiotic use (16). 

  • Did you know?

    The name ‘echinacea’ is derived from the Greek word ‘echino’ which means ‘sea urchin’ or ‘hedgehog’. This was chosen because it aptly described the spiny central disc of the echinacea flowers. Traditionally, echinacea was used in Native American medical traditions to treat snake bites and blood poisoning (17).

Additional information

  • Botanical description

    Echinacea is a perennial plant that can grow to between 3–5 feet tall with a distinctive coneflower (hence its other name purple coneflower). The leaves are lance shaped, rough and haired, alternate which become smaller higher up the stem. 

    The flower heads are typically pink to purple in colour with a distinctive dome shaped central cone consisting of multiple small bisexual tubular flowers. Ray florets surround the cone and are often pink or purple in colour. The plants flower from early summer into autumn (22).

  • Common names

    • Echinacea
    • Rudbeckia
    • Snakeroot
    • Broad-leaved purple cone flower
    • Narrow-leafed purple cone flower

  • Safety

    Safe for most people, although caution should be exercised with lactation, and asthma due to the potential for echinacea to modulate cytokines which could provoke an inflammatory response. It is recommended to consult a medical herbalist in these cases (3,4,18).  

    In 2012 a warning was issued by the MHRA that as a precautionary measure the remedy echinacea should not be given to children under 12 years old, due to a small risk of a severe allergic reaction which outweighed any benefits (18). However, since this time there has been research demonstrating the significant benefits of echinacea for children in reducing RTI’s and subsequent antibiotic use with minimal allergic reactions within the study group (19). This was based on a specific extract of echinacea, but suggests that unless there is a specific known allergy to this plant family then echinacea can have many benefits to children’s immunity.

  • Interactions

    There is conflicting information about taking immunosuppressant drugs and echinacea together and as such it is advised to consult a medical herbalist for guidance if using this medication. 

    It may also alter HIV medication. Echinacea could also increase the effects of caffeine through inhibiting its metabolism (3, 4, 20).

    Echinacea could also interact with cytochrome P450  medication (3, 4, 20).

  • Contraindications

    Contraindicated in transplant patients taking immunosuppressants and those with a known allergy to Asteraceae family (3, 4, 20).

  • Preparations

    • Tincture
    • Decoction
    • Capsule

  • Dosage

    • Tincture (1:5 45%): Take between 1–4 ml in a little water three times daily.
    • Decoction: To make a decoction, place 1–2 teaspoons of echinacea root into one cup of water and bring slowly to the boil. Simmer for around 15–20 minutes. Strain and drink up to three times daily (2, 12).

  • Plant parts used

    • Root 
    • Aerial parts

  • Constituents

    • Alkylamides (alkamides): Isobutylamides
    • Caffeic acid derivatives: Echinacoside and cynarin (E. angustifolia); chicoric acid (E. purpurea), caftaric acid, cholorogenic acid and caffeic acid
    • Polysaccharides: Arabinogalactan-protein rich in hydroxyproline and heteroxylan, ‘echinacin’ (although identification and consistency of various polysaccharides is not clear)
    • Polyacetylenes: Echinalone in (E. purpurea), ketoalkenes, ketoalkynes
    • Essential oil (trace)
    • Resin 
    • Betaine 
    • Vitamins: A, C and E (2)

    Of these constituents there is evidence for immunological activity of the polysaccharides, though as these are quickly broken down on digestion such activity will be confined to surface defences in the mouth and throat. Most interest recently has been in the activity of the alkylamides, in modulating the activity of cannabinoid receptors (CB2) which have immune-modulating activity.

    The alkylamides, especially the isobutylamides have a characteristic tingling effect in the mouth and have long been considered a mark of quality of echinacea and are particularly prominent in E. angustifolia. Caffeic acid derivatives from the latter have also shown antihyaluronidase activity: hyaluronidase is an enzyme that some infective bacteria use to penetrate mucosal surfaces (1, 2, 21).

Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia)

  • Habitat

    Both species are native to eastern and central North America where they commonly grow in moist to dry woodlands or prairies. This plant is now cultivated across the globe for both medicinal and horticultural purposes. Echinacea angustifolia is threatened in the wild and harder to grow than E. purpurea (23).

  • Sustainability

    Amber Sustainability Status
    At risk from overharvesting and habitat loss. Read more in our sustainability guide.

    Natureserve states that the echinacea species are apparently secure although borderline vulnerable. E. purpurea is observed to have a fairly patchy distribution in its native habitats across the US with only small and sporadic populations. Habitat loss is a problem for this plant (24,25).

    E. angustifolia, although still abundant, has suffered nearly a century of wild root harvesting across the range. Other threats include the destruction of its native prairie habitat by converting it to pastures and highway maintenance practices (26,27).

    Habitat loss and over-harvesting from the wild are two of the biggest threats faced by medicinal plant species. There are an increasing number of well-known herbal medicines at risk of extinction. We must, therefore, ensure that we source our medicines with sustainability in mind.

    The herb supplement industry is growing at a rapid rate and until recent years a vast majority of medicinal plant produce in global trade was of unknown origin. There are some very real and urgent issues surrounding sustainability in the herb industry. These include environmental factors that affect the medicinal viability of herbs, the safety of the habitats that they are taken from, as well as the welfare of workers in the trade.

    The botanical supply chain efforts for improved visibility (transparency and traceability) into verifiably sustainable production sites around the world is now certificated through the emergence of credible international voluntary sustainability standards (VSS). 

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)
    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)

    There are three species of echinacea that are pharmaceutically important. Echinacea angustifolia, E. pallida and E. purpurea. The compounds are similar across all three species but there are variations in the specific metabolites (28).

    National pharmacopoeias have separate monographs for each of the species which set minimum levels for certain compounds. The British Pharmacopoeia (BP) has a monograph for the roots of E. pallida and E. angustifolia setting a level of echinacoside at 0.2% and 0.5%, respectively. There is a monograph for both the leaves and roots of E. purpurea, with a minimum level for caftaric and cichoric acid of 0.5% in the leaf and 0.1% in the root (29).

    Adulteration with other plant species has been observed in echinacea, but recent studies show that the undeclared use of other echinacea species or plant parts is a more common occurrence. It is not always clear if echinacea adulteration is done on purpose or accidental, as species confusion are known from this genus (30). 

    Fortunately, there are techniques available that can help identify these forms of adulteration. These include high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) in which the presence of different constituents and the concentration can enable the species to be distinguished. The plant parts can also be differentiated through this technique, as chlorophyll pigments will only be present in the leaves.

    Herbal medicines are often very safe to take, however, it is important to buy herbal medicines from a reputed supplier. Sometimes herbs bought from disreputable sources are contaminated, adulterated or substituted with incorrect plant matter.

    Some important markers for quality to look for would be to look for certified organic labelling, ensuring that the correct scientific/botanical name is used and that suppliers can provide information about the source of ingredients used in the product.

    A supplier should be able to tell you where the herbs have come from. There is more space for contamination and adulteration when the supply chain is unknown.

  • How to grow

    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)
    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)

    The easiest method for sowing echinacea is to sow it indoors in trays (open trays or plugs) in early spring. Sow the seeds on the surface, or with a very light covering of seed compost, keep moist, and you should start to see germination within 1–2 weeks.

    There are different opinions on whether echinacea seeds should be stratified before sowing. Following experimentation, the best results were found by cold-moist stratification (mixed with sand, put in a sealed bag and kept in the fridge) for 1–3 months. This method resulted in quicker germination than non-stratified seed, and with a slightly higher germination rate. 

    Sowing outdoors in the autumn can mean a longer germination time, with a lower germination rate. These outdoor seedlings, although harder to germinate and slower to grow, do appear to be more robust than their indoor counterparts – perhaps an important advantage if your garden is prone to slugs, frost or any other threats to survival.

    Transplant into the final position as early as possible with a spacing of around 30–60 cm. If you’re lucky you may get a few flowers in the first year. And in the second year you’re in for a special treat (31)! 

  • Recipe

    Elderberry and echinacea winter warmer tea

    This elderberry and echinacea winter warmer tea targets the cause of seasonal infections by strengthening both short- and long-term immunity.

    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)
    Echinacea (Echinacea purpurea)

    Ingredients

    • Echinacea root 2 g
    • Elderberry 2 g
    • Elderflower 2 g
    • Rosehip 2 g
    • Peppermint leaf 2 g
    • Orange peel 2 g
    • Aniseed 1 g
    • Ginger root powder 1 g
    • Licorice root 1 g
    • Orange essential oil a drop per cup

    Method

    1. Put all of the ingredients (except for the orange essential oil) in a pot.
    2. Add 500ml/18fl oz freshly boiled filtered water.
    3. Leave to steep for 10–15 minutes, then strain.
    4. Add a drop of orange essential oil to each cup.

    This will serve 2-3 cups of good health.

    This recipe is from the book Cleanse, Nurture, Restore by Sebastian Pole

  • References

    1. American Botanical Council (ABC). Expanded Commission E: Echinacea Angustifolia herb and root/Pallida herb. cms.herbalgram.org. Accessed August 2, 2024. http://cms.herbalgram.org/expandedE/EchinaceaAngustifoliaherbandrootPallidaherb.html 
    2. Fisher C. Materia Medica of Western Herbs. Aeon Books; 2018.
    3. Thomsen M. Phytotherapy Desk Reference. 6th ed. Aeon Books; 2022.
    4. Mcintyre A. Complete Herbal Tutor : The Definitive Guide to the Principles and Practices of Herbal Medicine (Second Edition). Aeon Books Limited; 2019.
    5. Hall H, Fahlman M, Engels H. Echinacea Purpurea and Mucosal Immunity. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 2007;28(9):792-797. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-964895 
    6. Mudge E, Lopes-Lutz D, Brown P, Schieber A. Analysis of Alkylamides in Echinacea Plant Materials and Dietary Supplements by Ultrafast Liquid Chromatography with Diode Array and Mass Spectrometric Detection. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2011;59(15):8086-8094. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf201158k 
    7. Elufioye TO, Habtemariam S, Adejare A. Chemistry and Pharmacology of Alkylamides from Natural Origin. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia. 2020;30(5):622-640. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43450-020-00095-5 
    8. Zhai Z, Liu Y, Wu L, et al. Enhancement of Innate and Adaptive Immune Functions by Multiple Echinacea Species. Journal of Medicinal Food. 2007;10(3):423-434. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2006.257 
    9. BHMA. Echinacea | British Herbal Medicine Association. British Herbal Medicine Association. Accessed August 2, 2024. https://bhma.info/indications/coughs-colds-flu/echinacea/#:~:text=Echinacea%20was%20used%20for%20centuries 
    10. Hostettmann K. [History of a plant: the example of Echinacea]. Forschende Komplementarmedizin Und Klassische Naturheilkunde = Research in Complementary and Natural Classical Medicine. 2003;10 Suppl 1(10):9-12. https://doi.org/10.1159/000071678 
    11. Karsch-Völk M, Barrett B, Kiefer D, Bauer R, Ardjomand-Woelkart K, Linde K. Echinacea for preventing and treating the common cold. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2014;(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd000530.pub3 
    12. Bone K, Mills S. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. 2nd ed. Edinburgh Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier; 2013.
    13. Linde K, Barrett B, Bauer R, Melchart D, Woelkart K. Echinacea for preventing and treating the common cold. Linde K, ed. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Published online January 25, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd000530.pub2 
    14. David S, Cunningham R. Echinacea for the prevention and treatment of upper respiratory tract infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 2019;44:18-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2019.03.011 
    15. Tiralongo E, Lea RA, Wee SS, Hanna MM, Griffiths LR. Randomised, Double Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial ofEchinaceaSupplementation in Air Travellers. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012;2012:1-9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/417267 
    16. Ogal M, Johnston SL, Klein P, Schoop R. Echinacea reduces antibiotic usage in children through respiratory tract infection prevention: a randomized, blinded, controlled clinical trial. European Journal of Medical Research. 2021;26(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40001-021-00499-6 
    17. Grieve M. A Modern Herbal.; 1984.
    18. Pizzorno JE, Murray MT, Joiner-Bey H. The Clinician’s Handbook of Natural Medicine. Churchill Livingstone; 2016.
    19. De Filippis F, Paparo L, Nocerino R, et al. Specific gut microbiome signatures and the associated pro-inflamatory functions are linked to pediatric allergy and acquisition of immune tolerance. Nature Communications. 2021;12(1):5958. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26266-z 
    20. Natural Medicines. Echinacea. naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com. Published 2024. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/databases/food 
    21. Gertsch J. Immunomodulatory lipids in plants: plant fatty acid amides and the human endocannabinoid system. Planta medica. 2008;74(6):638-650. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2008-1034302 
    22. RHS. Echinacea purpurea | purple coneflower Herbaceous Perennial/RHS Gardening. www.rhs.org.uk. Published 2024. https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/41568/echinacea-purpurea/details 
    23. Lim TK. Echinacea purpurea. Edible Medicinal And Non-Medicinal Plants. Published online September 3, 2013:340-371. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7395-0_23 
    24. NatureServe. Echinacea Purpurea. explorer.natureserve.org. Published 2024. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.132226/Echinacea_purpurea 
    25. Reinier J, Kirchner W, Preston JD, Meredith C. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Echinacea purpurea. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Published April 19, 2023. Accessed August 2, 2024. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/88323256/88323259 
    26. United Plant Savers. Echinacea – Echinacea spp. – United Plant Savers. United Plant Savers. Published August 28, 2019. https://unitedplantsavers.org/echinacea-echinacea-spp-2/ 
    27. NatureServe. Echinacea angustifolia. explorer.natureserve.org. Published 2024. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.128470/Echinacea_angustifolia 
    28. Edward Trease G, Charles Evans W, Evans D. Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy. Saunders; 2009.
    29. British Pharmacopoeia Commission. British Pharmacopoeia 2025. London TSO; 2025.
    30. Orhan N, Gafner S, Blumenthal M. Estimating the extent of adulteration of the popular herbs black cohosh, echinacea, elder berry, ginkgo, and turmeric – its challenges and limitations. Natural Product Reports. Published online January 1, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4np00014e 
    31. Earthsong seeds. Echinacea angustifolia. Earthsong Seeds. Accessed August 2, 2024. https://earthsongseeds.co.uk/shop/herbs/echinacea-angustifolia/

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (eg from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot
Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradich or wasabi, generate warmth when taken. In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage. Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold. .
Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol. .
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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