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Bilberries are a rich source of protective polyphenols

Bilberry

Vaccinium myrtillus

Ericaceae

Bilberry is seen as one of the leading sources of anthocyanins, the blue-purple pigment found in fruit which offer anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties

Last reviewed 01/07/2020

Sustainability status

Not currently on risk lists but complete data may be missing on the status of the species. Read more in our sustainability guide.

Sustainability Status
Key benefits
  • Chronic inflammation
  • Blood sugar problems
  • Improve heart and circulatory functions
  • Improve vision

  • How does it feel?

    Bilberries are similar to blueberries in their taste profile. The rich blue-purple colour of these berries, resulting from the anthocyanin constituents, is indicative of their health properties.  Upon tasting, they are initially sharp or slightly tart, suggestive of the rich vitamin C content, followed by a sweeter flavour and an astringent action in the mouth, which denotes the presence of tannins in the berries.

    Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus)
    Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus)
    Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus)

  • What can I use it for?

    Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus)
    Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus)

    Bilberry is a traditional choice for supporting the microvasculature and improving peripheral circulation. It can be used as a long-term supplement for varicose veins, haemorrhoids, slow-healing bruises, and heavy painful legs resulting from poor circulation. In cases of Reynaud’s syndrome, bilberry offers support for capillary fragility and spider veins. Bilberry may also be remedial for cardiovascular health complications, such as diabetes, atherosclerosis and high blood pressure (1,2).

    Bilberries are often prescribed to help manage insulin resistance metabolic syndrome, which is a key component in type 2 diabetes (3). The rich antioxidant content helps to reduce chronic inflammation and reduce oxidative stress often seen in obesity, diabetes and metabolic syndrome (4). 

    In the case of dietary supplementation, the rich fibre content of bilberries strengthens gut barrier function, modulates the gut microflora and contributes to a reduction in intestinal inflammation (5).   

    Bilberry supports eye health through its effects on the microcirculation and can help to reduce eye fatigue, dryness and discomfort as well as contribute to a reduction in visual impairment (6). This action may be especially relevant to those who are regularly exposed to screens for long periods of time. 

  • Into the heart of bilberry

    Bilberries are cooling, astringing and nutritive with a strong affinity for the cardiovascular system. Their cooling action makes them useful in moving heat and inflammation present in many chronic diseases. The astringent properties help to tonify tissues and alleviate congestion. 

    Bilberries are a rich source of polyphenols, offering protection from free radical damage and chronic inflammation, as well as improving tissue repair (1,5). Bilberries also contain phenolic acids, which contribute to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects (7). As bilberry acts directly on the capillaries, it helps to attenuate the inflammatory process within the capillary walls and protects them from free radical damage, helping to reduce the risk of atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis (8,9).

  • Traditional uses

    Bilberry fruit has been used as an astringent healing remedy, topically for haemorrhoids and vaginal inflammations, and internally for diarrhoea, dysentery, and gastrointestinal inflammation. Described as an astringent and absorptive for a hot digestive tract, it was also commonly used to alleviate acute vomiting and general digestive upset. Topically, it was used as a mouthwash and gargle for inflammations and ulcerations of the mouth.

    Bilberry has a reputation for drying breast milk. The fruit has also been used to treat scurvy (well-justified by its constituents), and like its relative the cranberry, for urinary complaints. Bilberry was also used in Europe to colour wine and to dye wool (10).

  • Traditional actions

    Herbal actions describe therapeutic changes that occur in the body in response to taking a herb. These actions are used to express how a herb physiologically influences cells, tissues, organs or systems. Clinical observations are traditionally what have defined these actions: an increase in urine output, diuretic; improved wound healing, vulnerary; or a reduction in fever, antipyretic. These descriptors too have become a means to group herbs by their effects on the body — herbs with a nervine action have become the nervines, herbs with a bitter action are the bitters. Recognising herbs as members of these groups provides a preliminary familiarity with their mechanisms from which to then develop an understanding of their affinities and nuance and discern their clinical significance.

    Western actions

  • Traditional energetic actions

    Herbal energetics are the descriptions Herbalists have given to plants, mushrooms, lichens, foods, and some minerals based on the direct experience of how they taste, feel, and work in the body. All traditional health systems use these principles to explain how the environment we live in and absorb, impacts our health. Find out more about traditional energetic actions in our article “An introduction to herbal energetics“.

  • What practitioners say

    Cardiovascular systemCardiovascular system

    Bilberry’s anthocyanins help to reduce oxidative stress and reduce inflammatory processes within the vascular endothelium, helping to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases (10,11). Bilberry reduces total cholesterol and LDL whilst increasing HDL, helping to support dyslipidaemia, atherosclerosis and reduce risk factors in chronic diseases (12). 

    As well as having shown to inhibit platelet aggregation, bilberry has an antihypertensive effect (4). For chronic venous insufficiency resulting in varicose veins or oedema in the extremities, bilberry is able to decrease vascular permeability and increase vascular tone (9). 

    These actions also contribute to supporting retinal health, visual acuity and eye health. It can be used to treat tired eyes, poor vision and protect against macular degeneration and cataracts (1,12). 

    Nervous system

    Bilberry offers a neuroprotective effect, as a result of its high polyphenol and anthocyanin content, and protection from neurodegenerative diseases and cognitive decline (13). By improving capillary function and reducing the permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) bilberry offers protection to the brain from inflammation (13). 

    Bilberry is also supportive in instances where there is damage to the nervous system due to hypertension and diabetes, which can manifest as retinopathy or retinal degeneration (1).

    Digestive system

    Bilberry can reduce inflammation in the digestive tract, and as such may be used for support with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The tannin content also indicates it for the treatment of diarrhoea and accompanying gastric discomfort or nausea (1,9).  Due to the pectin content of the berries, they can also act as a bulk laxative.The fresh berries are considered best for laxative effects, and the dried for diarrhoea.

  • Research

    Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus)
    Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus)

    Investigating the effects of Vaccinium myrtillus supplementation on cardiometabolic indices: A systematic review and meta-analysis

    This meta-analysis reviewed 11 randomised clinical trials (RCTs) involving 409 participants to assess the effect of bilberry supplementation on cardiometabolic health including lipid profiles, glycaemic control, inflammatory markers, oxidative stress and body composition. The trials included various bilberry supplementation for at least one week across a range of doses. The results found five trials showed a decrease in fasting blood glucose levels; three observed a reduction in HbA1c and five found a reduction in LDL cholesterol (11). 

    Efficacy and safety of anthocyanin-rich extract in patients with ulcerative colitis: A randomised controlled trial

    This RCT investigated the effect of an anthocyanin-rich extract (ACRE) made from bilberries on moderate to severe ulcerative colitis. The extract was given at a dose of between 800–1000 mg of anthocyanins daily, administered orally in equal doses three times daily. The patients were randomised, with 18 receiving ACRE and eight receiving placebo. The severity of UC was measured by Mayo scores of between 6–12.

    The results showed 50% of the ACRE patients showed a reduction in three points on the Mayo score compared to 37.5% in the placebo group. Overall, 77.8% of the patients in the ACRE showed improved Mayo scores compared to placebo (62.5%). There were no major safety concerns noted, and side effects were rare. The trial concluded longer and larger trials are required to confirm the effects, but the results are promising (14). 

    A 12-week-long intake of bilberry extract (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) improved objective findings of ciliary muscle contraction of the eye: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group comparison trial

    This trial was carried out to examine the effects of a long term standardised bilberry extract (SBE) on ciliary muscle contraction of the eye caused by visual display terminal tasks (VDT). There were a total of 109 participants who were randomised into SBE and placebo groups. They were administered 240 mg of either SBE or placebo once a day over the course of 12 weeks. Tests were carried out before and after VDT tasks at weeks 0, 4, 8 and 12. The results showed that values were significantly improved in the SBE group when compared to placebo. This study concluded that long term oral consumption of the SBE extract relieved tonic accommodation and reduced eye strain through allowing the ciliary muscle to relax (6). 

  • Did you know?

    In World War II, RAF pilots ate bilberry jam to improve their night vision (15).

Additional information

  • Botanical description

    Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), is one of many members of the Ericaceae (heath) family, along with blueberries, cranberries and bearberries (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi). It is particularly closely related to blueberries.

    It grows as a low shrub on moorland and mountain ranges, approximately 30–40 cm high with erect, branched flowering stems. Its leaves start as a rose colour, they then turn yellow-green and eventually become a deep red in the autumn. The leaves are very small and ‘leathery’ to the touch and its flowers are a light pink colour and bell shaped, the fruit are a dark purple and similar in size and shape to a blueberry (18).

  • Common names

    • Whortleberry
    • Whinberry
    • Black whortle
    • Blueberry
    • Whinberry
    • Dyeberry (Eng)
    • Heidelbeere (Ger)
    • Myrtille (Fr)
    • Myrtillo (Ital)

  • Safety

    It is recommended to discontinue taking bilberry two weeks prior to surgery due to potential antiplatelet effects (16). The leaves can be toxic due to the presence of hydroquinones and should not be consumed (16,17). Bilberry is safe to use in small amounts or those found in food during pregnancy and lactation (17). No significant adverse effects from taking bilberry are expected, although a small minority of people may experience gastric irritation (1,17).

  • Interactions

    Theoretically, bilberry may increase the risk of bleeding when combined with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs such as warfarin (2,16,17). It may also increase the risk of hypoglycaemia when combined with antidiabetic medication (17).

  • Contraindications

    None known (1,2,16,17)

  • Preparations

    • Fresh or dried berries
    • Dried powdered
    • Capsules
    • Tincture

  • Dosage

    • Tincture (1:5 | 25%): 5–10 ml per day
    • Fluid extract (1:1 | 25%): Take 3–6ml per day
    • Infusion/decoction: Take 2–4 g three times daily
    • Other preparations: The equivalent of 3 g fresh bilberries two to four times per day, or between 320–480 mg per day of an extract containing 36% anthocyanin content (2,16).

  • Constituents

    • Flavonoids: Anthocyanins (0.1–0.25%) of 15 different types, catechin, epicatechin, procyanidins, quercetin, myricatin
    • Phenolics: Phenolic acids — hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives including ferulic, p-coumaric, caffeic and chlorogenic acids; polyphenols — trans-resveratrol
    • Alkaloids: Quinolizidine types including myrtine and epimyrtine
    • Volatile oils: Methyl salicylate, farnesol, vanillin, myristicin and citronellol
    • Tannins: Condensed tannins
    • Iridoid glucosides: Monotropein
    • Fruit acids, sugars, pectin, hydoxy-fatty acids
    • Carotenoids and sterols (17)
Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus)

  • Habitat

    Bilberry is native to Europe, Asia and the Western states of the USA, but wild cultivars are now found across many temperate climates. It prefers acidic, nutrient poor soils including heaths, moorlands and bogs (18).

  • Sustainability

    According to the IUCN Red List, bilberry has been assessed in Europe and is currently classed as ‘Least Concern’ (19). Bilberry is predominantly wild harvested for food and medicine, and climate change poses a significant threat to its habitat due to temperature changes and soil types. As a result it is important to check with suppliers that sustainable methods of wild harvesting are being used to to protect the species from overharvesting (20)

    Habitat loss and over-harvesting from the wild are two of the biggest threats faced by medicinal plant species. There are an increasing number of well-known herbal medicines at risk of extinction. We must, therefore, ensure that we source our medicines with sustainability in mind.

    The herb supplement industry is growing at a rapid rate and until recent years a vast majority of medicinal plant produce in global trade was of unknown origin. There are some very real and urgent issues surrounding sustainability in the herb industry. These include environmental factors that affect the medicinal viability of herbs, the safety of the habitats that they are taken from, as well as the welfare of workers in the trade.

    The botanical supply chain efforts for improved visibility (transparency and traceability) into verifiably sustainable production sites around the world is now certificated through the emergence of credible international voluntary sustainability standards (VSS). 

    Read our article on Herbal quality & safety: What to know before you buy and Sustainable sourcing of herbs to learn more about what to look for and questions to ask suppliers about sustainability.

  • Quality control

    Herbal medicines are often very safe to take; however, their safety and efficacy can be jeopardised by quality issues. So, it is important to buy herbal medicines from a reputable supplier, from sources known to test their herbs to ensure there is no contamination, adulteration or substitution with incorrect plant matter, as well as ensuring that recognised marker compounds are at appropriate levels in the herbs.

    Some important quality assurances to look for are certified organic labelling, the correct scientific/botanical name, and the availability of information from the supplier about ingredient origins. A supplier should be able to tell you where the herbs have come from, what contaminants are not in the herb, and what the primary compounds are.

  • How to grow

    Bilberry will thrive in acidic soil (between 4.5 and 5.5 pH) and moderate temperature with plenty of light. It prefers well draining, loamy or sandy soils rich in peat and does not tolerate waterlogging. It can be propagated by seed or semi hardwood cuttings.

    Propagation works best in the spring, and cuttings should be placed in moist, well draining acidic compost whilst seeds should be sown into acidic compost and watered consistently. When planting out, make sure to use ericaceous compost and mulch with bark chips or leaf mould to retain moisture. Avoid over fertilising, as this will cause the leaves to grow in place of the fruit. 

    The berries are harvested from late summer to early autumn when fully ripe (21).

  • Recipe

    Bilberry jam

    This bilberry jam recipe is a simple and delicious recipe that can be made using freshly foraged bilberries. 

    Ingredients 

    • 600 g fresh bilberries 
    • 400 g organic granulated sugar 
    • 1 tablespoon freshly squeezed lemon juice 

    How to make bilberry jam

    • Firstly sterilise the jam jars and set aside. 
    • Wash the bilberries thoroughly. 
    • Place the bilberries, sugar and lemon juice in a saucepan. 
    • Heat the mixture gently over a medium heat and stir regularly to dissolve the sugar. 
    • Crush the berries using a potato masher. 
    • Gently increase the heat and bring the mixture to the boil, and boil for 15 minutes, stirring constantly to prevent any burning or sticking. 
    • Remove the mixture from the heat and let it cool for a few minutes. 
    • Pour the jam into the sterilised jars, seal immediately and allow the jam to cool to room temperature. 
    • Store in a cool, dry place and keep in the fridge once it has been opened. 

  • References

    1. Mcintyre A. Complete Herbal Tutor : The Definitive Guide to the Principles and Practices of Herbal Medicine (Second Edition). Aeon Books Limited; 2019.
    2. Thomsen M. Phytotherapy Desk Reference. 6th ed. Aeon Books; 2022.
    3. Takikawa M, Inoue S, Horio F, Tsuda T. Dietary Anthocyanin-Rich Bilberry Extract Ameliorates Hyperglycemia and Insulin Sensitivity via Activation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase in Diabetic Mice. The Journal of Nutrition. 2010;140(3):527-533. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.109.118216 
    4. Chan SW, Tomlinson B. Effects of Bilberry Supplementation on Metabolic and Cardiovascular Disease Risk. Molecules. 2020;25(7):1653. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25071653 
    5. Liu HY, Walden TB, Cai D, et al. Dietary Fiber in Bilberry Ameliorates Pre-Obesity Events in Rats by Regulating Lipid Depot, Cecal Short-Chain Fatty Acid Formation and Microbiota Composition. Nutrients. 2019;11(6):1350-1350. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11061350 
    6. Kosehira M, Machida N, Kitaichi N. A 12-Week-Long Intake of Bilberry Extract (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) Improved Objective Findings of Ciliary Muscle Contraction of the Eye: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel-Group Comparison Trial. Nutrients. 2020;12(3):600. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030600 
    7. Garzón GA, Narváez CE, Riedl KM, Schwartz SJ. Chemical composition, anthocyanins, non-anthocyanin phenolics and antioxidant activity of wild bilberry (Vaccinium meridionale Swartz) from Colombia. Food Chemistry. 2010;122(4):980-986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.03.017 
    8. Vaneková Z, Rollinger JM. Bilberries: Curative and Miraculous – A Review on Bioactive Constituents and Clinical Research. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2022;13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.909914 
    9. Chu W, Cheung SCM, Lau RAW, Benzie IFF. Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.). PubMed. Published 2011. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92770/
    10. Association for the Advancement of Restorative Medicine (AARM). Bilberry. Restorative Medicine. Published 2025. https://restorativemedicine.org/library/monographs/bilberry/ 
    11. Talebi S, Shirani M, Mahdavi A, Bagherniya M, Sahebkar A. Investigating the Effects of Vaccinium myrtillus Supplementation on Cardiometabolic Indices: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis. Phytotherapy Research. Published online August 2, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.70054 
    12. Habánová M, Saraiva JA, Miroslav Habán, et al. Intake of bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) reduced risk factors for cardiovascular disease by inducing favorable changes in lipoprotein profiles. Nutrition Research. 2016;36(12):1415-1422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2016.11.010 
    13. Essa M, Al-Adawi S, Memon M, Manivasagam T, Akbar M, Subash S. Neuroprotective effects of berry fruits on neurodegenerative diseases. Neural Regeneration Research. 2014;9(16):1557. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.139483 
    14. Biedermann L, Doulberis M, Schreiner P, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Anthocyanin-Rich Extract in Patients with Ulcerative Colitis: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Nutrients. 2024;16(23):4197. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16234197 
    15. Grieve M. A Modern Herbal | Bilberry. Botanical.com. Published 2025. Accessed September 6, 2025. https://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/b/bilber37.html 
    16. Fisher C. Materia Medica of Western Herbs. Aeon Books; 2018.
    17. TRC Healthcare. NatMed Pro – Ingredient & Therapy Monographs. Therapeuticresearch.com. Published 2025. Accessed September 6, 2025. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com/IngredientsTherapiesMonographs?productid=973 
    18. RHS. Vaccinium myrtillus | common bilberry/RHS Gardening. www.rhs.org.uk. https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/18701/Vaccinium-myrtillus/Details 
    19. SK (Cave IS. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Bilberry. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Published July 12, 2012. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/201564/14707728 
    20. Wakely P. Bilberry Vaccinium Myrtillus. Climate Change Adaptation Manual: Evidence to support nature conservation in a changing climate
    21. EarthOne. How To Grow Vaccinium myrtillus. Earthone.io. Published June 2023. Accessed September 6, 2025. https://earthone.io/plant/vaccinium%20myrtillus 

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Aromatic
An ‘aromatic’ remedy, high in volatile essential oils, was most often associated with calming and sometimes ‘warming’ the digestion. Most kitchen spices and herbs have this quality: they were used both as flavouring and to ease the digestion of sometimes challenging pre-industrial foods. Many aromatics are classed as ‘carminatives’ and are used to reduce colic, bloating and agitated digestion. They also often feature in respiratory remedies for colds, chest and other airway infections. They are also classic calming inhalants and massage oils, and are the basis of aromatherapy for their mental benefits.
Astringent
The astringent taste you get with many plants (the most familiar is black tea after being stewed too long, or some red wines) is produced by complex polyphenols such as tannins. Tannins are used in concentrated form (eg from oak bark) to make leather from animal skins. The process of ‘tanning’ involves the coagulation of relatively fluid proteins in living tissues into tight clotted fibres (similar to the process of boiling an egg). Tannins in effect turn exposed surfaces on the body into leather. In the case of the lining of mouth and upper digestive tract this is only temporary as new mucosa are replenished, but in the meantime can calm inflamed or irritated surfaces. In the case of open wounds tannins can be a life-saver – when strong (as in the bark of broadleaved trees) they can seal a damaged surface. One group of tannins, the reddish-brown ‘condensed tannins’ are procyanidins, which can reduce inflammation and oxidative damage.
Bitter
Bitters are a very complex group of phytochemicals that stimulate the bitter receptors in the mouth. They were some of the most valuable remedies in ancient medicine. They were experienced as stimulating appetite and switching on a wide range of key digestive functions, including increasing bile clearance from the liver (as bile is a key factor in bowel health this can be translated into improving bowel functions and the microbiome). Many of these reputations are being supported by new research on the role of bitter receptors in the mouth and elsewhere round the body. Bitters were also seen as ‘cooling’ reducing the intensity of some fevers and inflammatory diseases.
Cooling
Traditional ‘cold’ or cooling’ remedies often contain bitter phytonutrients such a iridoids (gentian), sesiquterpenes (chamomile), anthraquinones (rhubarb root), mucilages (marshmallow), some alkaloids and flavonoids. They tend to influence the digestive system, liver and kidneys. Cooling herbs do just that; they diffuse, drain and clear heat from areas of inflammation, redness and irritation. Sweet, bitter and astringent herbs tend to be cooling.
Hot
Traditional ‘hot’ or ‘heating’ remedies, often containing spice ingredients like capsaicin, the gingerols (ginger), piperine (black or long pepper), curcumin (turmeric) or the sulfurous isothiocyanates from mustard, horseradich or wasabi, generate warmth when taken. In modern times this might translate as thermogenic and circulatory stimulant effects. There is evidence of improved tissue blood flow with such remedies: this would lead to a reduction in build-up of metabolites and tissue damage. Heating remedies were used to counter the impact of cold, reducing any symptoms made worse in the cold. .
Mucilaginous
Mucilages are complex carbohydrate based plant constituents with a slimy or ‘unctuous’ feel especially when chewed or macerated in water. Their effect is due simply to their physical coating exposed surfaces. From prehistory they were most often used as wound remedies for their soothing and healing effects on damaged tissues. Nowadays they are used more for these effects on the digestive lining, from the throat to the stomach, where they can relieve irritation and inflammation such as pharyngitis and gastritis. Some of the prominent mucilaginous remedies like slippery elm, aloe vera and the seaweeds can be used as physical buffers to reduce the harm and pain caused by reflux of excess stomach acid. Mucilages are also widely used to reduce dry coughing. Here the effect seems to be by reflex through embryonic nerve connections: reduced signals from the upper digestive wall appear to translate as reduced activity of airway muscles and increased activity of airway mucus cells. Some seed mucilages, such as in psyllium seed, flaxseed (linseed) or guar bean survive digestion to provide bulking laxative effects in the bowel. These can also reduce rate of absorption of sugar and cholesterol. .
Pungent
The pungent flavour refers to the powerful taste of hot spices including mustard (Brassica spp.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), horseradish (Amoracia rusticana), chilli (Capsicum spp.), and garlic (Allium sativum). These herbs act to enliven and invigorate the senses, and they often also have heating qualities. Unlike other tastes, the effect is not linked to a specific receptor on the tongue and instead acts through direct irritation of tissues and nerve endings. Energetically, pungent herbs are known to disperse energy (qi) throughout the body. Pharmacologically, pungent herbs dry excess moisture and mucus, as well as stimulate digestion and metabolism.
Resinous
Resins are most familiar as tacky discharges from pine trees (and as the substance in amber, and rosin for violin bows). They were most valued however as the basis of ancient commodities like frankincense and myrrh (two of the three gifts of the Three Wise Men to the baby Jesus) and getting access to their source was one benefit to Solomon for marrying the Queen of Sheba (now Ethiopia). Resins were the original antiseptic remedies, ground and applied as powders or pastes to wounds or inflamed tissues, and were also used for mummification. With alcohol distillation it was found that they could be dissolved in 90% alcohol and in this form they remain a most powerful mouthwash and gargle, for infected sore throats and gum disease. They never attracted much early research interest because they permanently coat expensive glassware! For use in the mouth, gums and throat hey are best combined with concentrated licorice extracts to keep the resins in suspension and add extra soothing properties. It appears that they work both as local antiseptics and by stimulating white blood cell activity under the mucosal surface. They feel extremely effective!
Salty
The salty flavour is immediately distinctive. A grain dropped onto the tongue is instantly moistening and a sprinkle on food enkindles digestion. This easily recognisable flavour has its receptors right at the front of the tongue. The salty flavor creates moisture and heat, a sinking and heavy effect which is very grounding for the nervous system and encourages stability. People who are solid and reliable become known as ‘the salt of the earth'.
Sharp
The sharp taste of some fruits, and almost all unripe fruits, as well as vinegar and fermented foods, is produced by weak acids (the taste is generated by H+ ions from acids stimulating the sour taste buds). Sour taste buds are hard-wired to generate immediate reflex responses elsewhere in the body. Anyone who likes the refreshing taste of lemon or other citrus in the morning will know that one reflex effect is increased saliva production. Other effects are subjective rather than confirmed by research but there is a consistent view that they include increased digestive activity and contraction of the gallbladder.
Sour
The sour taste occurs because of the stimulation of hydrogen ions which trigger the sour taste receptors on the tongue. The more acidic a substance, the more hydrogen ions will be released. The sour taste comes from acidic substances including citrus, fermented foods, tannins, and vinegars. Sour foods and herbs absorb excess moisture, whilst also increasing the production of saliva. Energetically, sour substances tonify the lungs, playing a role in disease prevention. Excessive use, however, can result in malabsorption of nutrients. Examples of sour herbs include, rosehips (Rosa canina), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), schisandra (Schisandra chinensis), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba).
Sweet
In the days when most people never tasted sugar, ‘sweetness’ was associated with the taste of basic foods: that of cooked vegetables, cereals and meat. In other words sweet was the quality of nourishment, and ‘tonic’ remedies. Describing a remedy as sweet generally led to that remedy being used in convalescence or recovery from illness. Interestingly, the plant constituents most often found in classic tonics like licorice, ginseng are plant steroids including saponins, which also have a sweet taste.
Umami
The umami taste was originally discovered in 1985 in Japan and is directly translated from the Japanese as a ‘pleasant savoury taste’. It is referred to as the ‘fifth taste’ and is a salty, rich, and meaty flavour. The umami flavour is produced by amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartic acid) found in many food and plant sources including tomatoes, mushrooms, seaweeds and soy-based foods. Umami foods can improve nutritional absorption and digestion as there are also umami receptors in the gut as well as the mouth. Examples of umami herbs include green tea (Camellia sinensis), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), nettle (Urtica dioica), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), shitake (Lentinula edodes) and bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus).

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